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THE STATUS OF WOMAN IN ISLAM
By Jamal A. Badawi
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CONTENTS
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Family, society and ultimately the whole of mankind is
treated by Islam on an ethical basis.
Differentiation in sex is neither a credit nor a
drawback for the sexes. Therefore, when we talk about
status of woman in Islam it should not lead us to
think that Islam has no specific guidelines,
limitations, responsibilities and obligations for
men. What makes one valuable and respectable in the
eyes of Allah, the Creator of mankind and the
universe, is neither one's prosperity, position,
intelligence, physical strength nor beauty, but only
one's Allah-consciousness and awareness (taqwa).
However, since in the Western culture and in cultures
influenced by it, there exists a disparity between
men and women there is more need for stating Islam's
position on important issues in a clear way. |
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Dr. Jamal Badawi's essay, The Status of Women in
Islam, was originally published in our quarterly
journal, Al-lttihad, Vol. 8, No. 2, Sha'ban 1391/Sept
1971. Since then it has been one of our
most-demanded publications. We thank Br. Jamal for
permitting us to reprint his essay. We hope it will
clarify many of the misconceptions.
Anis Ahmad,
Director Dept. of Education and Training
MSA of U.S. and Canada
P.O. Box 38 Plainfield, IN 46168 USA
Jumada al Thani 1400 April 1980
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The status of women in society is neither a new issue
nor is it a fully settled one.
The position of Islam on this issue has been among
the subjects presented to the Western reader with the
least objectivity.
This paper is intended to provide a brief and
authentic exposition of what Islam stands for in this
regard. The teachings of Islam are based essentially
on the Qur'an (God's revelation) and Hadeeth
(elaboration by Prophet Muhammad).
The Qur'an and the Hadeeth, properly and unbiasedly
understood, provide the basic source of
authentication for any position or view which is
attributed to Islam.
The paper starts with a brief survey of the status of
women in the pre-Islamic era. It then focuses on
these major questions:
What is the position of Islam regarding the status of
woman in society? How similar or different is that
position from "the spirit of the time," which was
dominant when Islam was revealed? How would this
compare with the "rights" which were finally gained
by woman in recent decades?
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One major objective of this paper is to provide a
fair evaluation of what Islam contributed (or failed
to contribute) toward the restoration of woman's
dignity and rights. In order to achieve this
objective, it may be useful to review briefly how
women were treated in general in previous
civilizations and religions, especially those which
preceded Islam (Pre-610 C.E.). Part of the
information provided here, however, describes the
status of woman as late as the nineteenth century,
more than twelve centuries after Islam.
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Describing the status of the Indian woman,
Encyclopedia Britannica states:
In India, subjection was a cardinal principle. Day
and night must women be held by their protectors in a
state of dependence says Manu. The rule of
inheritance was agnatic, that is descent traced
through males to the exclusion of females.
In Hindu scriptures, the description of a good wife
is as follows: "a woman whose mind, speech and body
are kept in subjection, acquires high renown in this
world, and, in the next, the same abode with her
husband."
In Athens, women were not better off than either the
Indian or the Roman women.
"Athenian women were always minors, subject to some
male - to their father, to their brother, or to some
of their male kin.
Her consent in marriage was not generally thought to
be necessary and "she was obliged to submit to the
wishes of her parents, and receive from them her
husband and her lord, even though he were stranger to
her."
A Roman wife was described by an historian as: "a
babe, a minor, a ward, a person incapable of doing or
acting anything according to her own individual
taste, a person continually under the tutelage and
guardianship of her husband."
In the Encyclopedia Britannica, we find a summary of
the legal status of women in the Roman civilization:
In Roman Law a woman was even in historic times
completely dependent. If married she and her property
passed into the power of her husband . . . the wife
was the purchased property of her husband, and like a
slave acquired only for his benefit. A woman could
not exercise any civil or public office . could not
be a witness, surety, tutor, or curator; she could
not adopt or be adopted, or make will or contract.
Among the Scandinavian races women were:
under perpetual tutelage, whether married or
unmarried. As late as the Code of Christian V, at the
end of the 17th Century, it was enacted that if a
woman married without the consent of her tutor he
might have, if he wished, administration and usufruct
of her goods during her life.
According to the English Common Law:
...all real property which a wife held at the time of
a marriage became a possession of her husband. He was
entitled to the rent from the land and to any profit
which might be made from operating the estate during
the joint life of the spouses. As time passed, the
English courts devised means to forbid a husband's
transferring real property without the consent of his
wife, but he still retained the right to manage it
and to receive the money which it produced. As to a
wife's personal property, the husband's power was
complete. He had the right to spend it as he saw fit.
Only by the late nineteenth Century did the situation
start to improve. "By a series of acts starting with
the Married women's Property Act in 1870, amended in
1882 and 1887, married women achieved the right to
own property and to enter contracts on a par with
spinsters, widows, and divorcees." As late as the
Nineteenth Century an authority in ancient law, Sir
Henry Maine, wrote: "No society which preserves any
tincture of Christian institutions is likely to
restore to married women the personal liberty
conferred on them by the Middle Roman Law."
In his essay The Subjection of Women, John Stuart
Mill wrote:
We are continually told that civilization and
Christianity have restored to the woman her just
rights. Meanwhile the wife is the actual bondservant
of her husband; no less so, as far as the legal
obligation goes, than slaves commonly so called.
Before moving on to the Qur'anic decrees concerning
the status of woman, a few Biblical decrees may shed
more light on the subject, thus providing a better
basis for an impartial evaluation. In the Mosaic Law,
the wife was betrothed. Explaining this concept, the
Encyclopedia Biblica states: "To betroth a wife to
oneself meant simply to acquire possession of her by
payment of the purchase money; the betrothed is a
girl for whom the purchase money has been paid." From
the legal point of view, the consent of the girl was
not necessary for the validation of her marriage.
"The girl's consent is unnecessary and the need for
it is nowhere suggested in the Law."
As to the right of divorce, we read in the
Encyclopedia Biblica: "The woman being man's
property, his right to divorce her follows as a
matter of course." The right to divorce was held
only by man. "In the Mosaic Law divorce was a
privilege of the husband only .... "
The position of the Christian Church until recent
centuries seems to have been influenced by both the
Mosaic Law and by the streams of thought that were
dominant in its contemporary cultures. In their book,
Marriage East and West, David and Vera Mace wrote:
Let no one suppose, either, that our Christian
heritage is free of such slighting judgments. It
would be hard to find anywhere a collection of more
degrading references to the female sex than the early
Church Fathers provide. Lecky, the famous historian,
speaks of (these fierce incentives which form so
conspicuous and so grotesque a portion of the writing
of the Fathers . . . woman was represented as the
door of hell, as the mother of all human ills. She
should be ashamed at the very thought that she is a
woman. She should live in continual penance on
account of the curses she has brought upon the world.
She should be ashamed of her dress, for it is the
memorial of her fall. She should be especially
ashamed of her beauty, for it is the most potent
instrument of the devil). One of the most scathing of
these attacks on woman is that of Tertullian: Do you
know that you are each an Eve? The sentence of God on
this sex of yours lives in this age: the guilt must
of necessity live too. You are the devil's gateway:
you are the unsealer of that forbidden tree; you are
the first deserters of the divine law; you are she
who persuades him whom the devil was not valiant
enough to attack. You destroyed so easily God's
image, man. On account of your desert - that is death
- even the Sop of God had to die). Not only did the
church affirm the inferior status of woman, it
deprived her of legal rights she had previously
enjoyed.
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In the midst of the darkness that engulfed the world,
the divine revelation echoed in the wide desert of
Arabia with a fresh, noble, and universal message to
humanity: "O Mankind, keep your duty to your Lord who
created you from a single soul and from it created
its mate (of same kind) and from them twain has
spread a multitude of men and women" (Qur'an 4: 1).
A scholar who pondered about this verse states: "It
is believed that there is no text, old or new, that
deals with the humanity of the woman from all aspects
with such amazing brevity, eloquence, depth, and
originality as this divine decree."
Stressing this noble and natural conception, them
Qur'an states:
He (God) it is who did create you from a single soul
and therefrom did create his mate, that he might
dwell with her (in love)...(Qur'an 7:189)
The Creator of heavens and earth: He has made for you
pairs from among yourselves ...Qur'an 42:1 1
And Allah has given you mates of your own nature, and
has given you from your mates, children and
grandchildren, and has made provision of good things
for you. Is it then in vanity that they believe and
in the grace of God that they disbelieve? Qur'an
16:72
The rest of this paper outlines the position of Islam
regarding the status of woman in society from its
various aspects - spiritually, socially, economically
and politically.
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The Qur'an provides clear-cut evidence that woman iscompletely
equated with man in the sight of God interms of her rights and responsibilities.
The Qur'an states:
"Every soul will be (held) in pledge for its deeds"
(Qur'an 74:38). It also states:
...So their Lord accepted their prayers, (saying): I will not
suffer to be lost the work of any of you whether male or female. You proceed one
from another ...(Qur'an 3: 195).
Whoever works righteousness, man or woman, and has faith, verily
to him will We give a new life that is good and pure, and We will bestow on such
their reward according to the their actions. (Qur'an 16:97, see also 4:124).
Woman according to the Qur'an is not blamed for Adam's first
mistake. Both were jointly wrong in their disobedience to God, both repented,
and both were forgiven. (Qur'an 2:36, 7:20 - 24). In one verse in fact (20:121),
Adam specifically, was blamed.
In terms of religious obligations, such as the Daily Prayers,
Fasting, Poor-due, and Pilgrimage, woman is no different from man. In some cases
indeed, woman has certain advantages over man. For example, the woman is
exempted from the daily prayers and from fasting during her menstrual periods
and forty days after childbirth. She is also exempted from fasting during her
pregnancy and when she is nursing her baby if there is any threat to her health
or her baby's. If the missed fasting is obligatory (during the month of
Ramadan), she can make up for the missed days whenever she can. She does not
have to make up for the prayers missed for any of the above reasons. Although
women can and did go into the mosque during the days of the prophet and
thereafter attendance et the Friday congregational prayers is optional for them
while it is mandatory for men (on Friday).
This is clearly a tender touch of the Islamic teachings for they
are considerate of the fact that a woman may be nursing her baby or caring for
him, and thus may be unable to go out to the mosque at the time of the prayers.
They also take into account the physiological and psychological changes
associated with her natural female functions.
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Despite the social acceptance of female infanticide among some
Arabian tribes, the Qur'an forbade this custom, and considered it a crime like
any other murder.
"And when the female (infant) buried alive - is questioned,
for what crime she was killed." (Qur'an 81:8-9).
Criticizing the attitudes of such parents who reject their female
children, the Qur'an states:
When news is brought to one of them, of (the Birth of) a female
(child), his face darkens and he is filled with inward grief! With shame does he
hide himself from his people because of the bad news he has had! Shall he retain
her on (sufferance) and contempt, or bury her in the dust? Ah! What an evil
(choice) they decide on? (Qur'an 16: 58-59).
Far from saving the girl's life so that she may later suffer
injustice and inequality, Islam requires kind and just treatment for her. Among
the sayings of Prophet Muhammad (P.) in this regard are the following:
Whosoever has a daughter and he does not bury her alive, does not
insult her, and does not favor his son over her, God will enter him into
Paradise. (Ibn Hanbal, No. 1957).
Whosoever supports two daughters till they mature, he and I
will come in the day of judgment as this (and he pointed with his two fingers
held together).
A similar Hadeeth deals in like manner with one who supports two
sisters. (Ibn-Hanbal, No. 2104).
The right of females to seek knowledge is not different from
that of males. Prophet Muhammad (P.) said:
"Seeking knowledge is mandatory for every Muslim". (Al
Bayhaqi). Muslim as used here including both males and females.
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The Qur'an clearly indicates that marriage is sharing between
the two halves of the society, and that its
objectives, beside perpetuating human life, are
emotional well-being and spiritual harmony. Its bases
are love and mercy.
Among the most impressive
verses in the Qur'an about marriage is the following.
"And among His signs is this: That He
created mates for you from yourselves that you may
find rest, peace of mind in them, and He ordained
between you love and mercy. Lo, herein indeed are
signs for people who reflect." (Qur'an 30:2 1).
According to Islamic Law, women cannot
be forced to marry anyone without their consent.
Ibn Abbas reported that a girl came to the Messenger
of God, Muhammad (P.), and she reported that her
father had forced her to marry without her consent.
The Messenger of God gave her the choice . . .
(between accepting the marriage or invalidating it). (Ibn Hanbal No. 2469). In another version, the girl
said: "Actually I accept this marriage but I wanted
to let women know that parents have no right (to
force a husband on them)" (Ibn Maja, No. 1873).
Besides all other provisions for her protection at
the time of marriage, it was specifically decreed
that woman has the full right to her Mahr, a marriage
gift, which is presented to her by her husband and is
included in the nuptial contract, and that such
ownership does not transfer to her father or husband.
The concept of Mahr in Islam is neither an actual or
symbolic price for the woman, as was the case in
certain cultures, but rather it is a gift symbolizing
love and affection.
The rules for married life in
Islam are clear and in harmony with upright human
nature. In consideration of the physiological and
psychological make-up of man and woman, both have
equal rights and claims on one another, except for
one responsibility, that of leadership. This is a
matter which is natural in any collective life and
which is consistent with the nature of man.
The Qur'an thus states:
"And they (women) have rights similar to those (of
men) over them, and men are a degree above them."
(Qur'an 2:228).
Such degree is Quiwama (maintenance and
protection). This refers to that natural difference
between the sexes which entitles the weaker sex to
protection. It implies no superiority or advantage
before the law. Yet, man's role of leadership in
relation to his family does not mean the husband's
dictatorship over his wife. Islam emphasizes the
importance of taking counsel and mutual agreement in
family decisions. The Qur'an gives us an example:
"...If they (husband wife) desire to
wean the child by mutual consent and (after)
consultation, there is no blame on them..." (Qur'an
2: 233).
Over and above her basic
rights as a wife comes the right which is emphasized
by the Qur'an and is strongly recommended by the
Prophet (P); kind treatment and companionship.
The Qur'an states:
"...But consort with
them in kindness, for if you hate them it may happen
that you hate a thing wherein God has placed much
good." (Qur'an 4: l9).
Prophet Muhammad. (P) said:
The best of you is the best to his family
and I am the best among you to my family.
The most perfect believers are the best in conduct and
best of you are those who are best to their wives. (Ibn-Hanbal, No. 7396)
Behold, many women came to
Muhammad's wives complaining against their husbands
(because they beat them) - - those (husbands) are not
the best of you.
As the woman's right
to decide about her marriage is recognized, so also
her right to seek an end for an unsuccessful marriage
is recognized. To provide for the stability of the
family, however, and in order to protect it from
hasty decisions under temporary emotional stress,
certain steps and waiting periods should be observed
by men and women seeking divorce. Considering the
relatively more emotional nature of women, a good
reason for asking for divorce should be brought
before the judge. Like the man, however, the woman
can divorce her husband with out resorting to the
court, if the nuptial contract allows that.
More specifically, some aspects of Islamic Law concerning
marriage and divorce are interesting and are worthy
of separate treatment.
When the continuation of
the marriage relationship is impossible for any
reason, men are still taught to seek a gracious end
for it.
The Qur'an states about such cases:
When you divorce women, and they reach
their prescribed term, then retain them in kindness
and retain them not for injury so that you transgress
(the limits). (Qur'an 2:231). (See also Qur'an 2:229
and 33:49).
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Islam considered kindness to parents
next to the worship of God.
"And we have
enjoined upon man (to be good) to his parents: His
mother bears him in weakness upon weakness..."
(Qur'an 31:14) (See also Qur'an 46:15, 29:8).
Moreover, the Qur'an has a special
recommendation for the good treatment of mothers:
"Your Lord has decreed that you worship
none save Him, and that you be kind to your parents.
. ." (Qur'an 17:23).
A man came to Prophet Muhammad (P) asking:
O Messenger of God, who among the people is the most worthy of my
good company? The Prophet (P) said, Your mother. The
man said then who else: The Prophet (P) said, Your
mother. The man asked, Then who else? Only then did
the Prophet (P) say, Your father. (Al-Bukhari and
Muslim).
A famous saying of The Prophet
is "Paradise is at the feet of mothers." (In Al'Nisa'I, Ibn Majah, Ahmad).
"It is the generous
(in character) who is good to women, and it is the
wicked who insults them."
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Islam decreed a right of which woman
was deprived both before Islam and after it (even as
late as this century), the right of independent
ownership. According to Islamic Law, woman's right to
her money, real estate, or other properties is fully
acknowledged. This right undergoes no change whether
she is single or married. She retains her full rights
to buy, sell, mortgage or lease any or all her
properties. It is nowhere suggested in the Law that a
woman is a minor simply because she is a female. It
is also noteworthy that such right applies to her
properties before marriage as well as to whatever she
acquires thereafter.
With regard to the woman's right to seek
employment it should be stated first that Islam
regards her role in society as a mother and a wife as
the most sacred and essential one. Neither maids nor
baby-sitters can possibly take the mother's place as
the educator of an upright, complex free, and
carefully-reared children. Such a noble and vital
role, which largely shapes the future of nations,
cannot be regarded as "idleness".
However, there
is no decree in Islam which forbids woman from
seeking employment whenever there is a necessity for
it, especially in positions which fit her nature and
in which society needs her most. Examples of these
professions are nursing, teaching (especially for
children), and medicine. Moreover, there is no
restriction on benefiting from woman's exceptional
talent in any field. Even for the position of a
judge, where there may be a tendency to doubt the
woman's fitness for the post due to her more
emotional nature, we find early Muslim scholars such
as Abu-Hanifa and Al-Tabary holding there is nothing
wrong with it. In addition, Islam restored to woman
the right of inheritance, after she herself was an
object of inheritance in some cultures. Her share is
completely hers and no one can make any claim on it,
including her father and her husband.
"Unto men (of the family) belongs a share of that
which Parents and near kindred leave, and unto women
a share of that which parents and near kindred leave,
whether it be a little or much - a determinate
share." ((Qur'an 4:7).
Her share in
most cases is one-half the man's share, with no
implication that she is worth half a man! It would
seem grossly inconsistent after the overwhelming
evidence of woman's equitable treatment in Islam,
which was discussed in the preceding pages, to make
such an inference. This variation in inheritance
rights is only consistent with the variations in
financial responsibilities of man and woman according
to the Islamic Law. Man in Islam is fully responsible
for the maintenance of his wife, his children, and in
some cases of his needy relatives, especially the
females. This responsibility is neither waived nor
reduced because of his wife's wealth or because of
her access to any personal income gained from work,
rent, profit, or any other legal means.
Woman, on
the other hand, is far more secure financially and is
far less burdened with any claims on her possessions.
Her possessions before marriage do not transfer to
her husband and she even keeps her maiden name. She
has no obligation to spend on her family out of such
properties or out of her income after marriage. She
is entitled to the "Mahr" which she takes from her
husband at the time of marriage. If she is divorced,
she may get an alimony from her ex-husband.
An examination of the inheritance law within the overall
framework of the Islamic Law reveals not only justice
but also an abundance of compassion for woman.
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Any fair investigation of the teachings of Islam or
into the history of the Islamic civilization will
surely find a clear evidence of woman's equality with
man in what we call today "political rights".
This includes the right of election as well as the
nomination to political offices. It also includes
woman's right to participate in public affairs. Both
in the Qur'an and in Islamic history we find examples
of women who participated in serious discussions and
argued even with the Prophet (P) himself, (see Qur'an
58: 14 and 60: 10-12).
During the Caliphate of
Omar Ibn al-Khattab, a woman argued with him in the
mosque, proved her point, and caused him to declare
in the presence of people: "A woman is right and Omar
is wrong."
Although not mentioned in the Qur'an,
one Hadeeth of the Prophet is interpreted to make
woman ineligible for the position of head of state.
The Hadeeth referred to is roughly translated: "A
people will not prosper if they let a woman be their
leader." This limitation, however, has nothing to do
with the dignity of woman or with her rights. It is
rather, related to the natural differences in the
biological and psychological make-up of men and
women.
According to Islam, the head of the state
is no mere figurehead. He leads people in the
prayers, especially on Fridays and festivities; he is
continuously engaged in the process of
decision-making pertaining to the security and
well-being of his people. This demanding position, or
any similar one, such as the Commander of the Army,
is generally inconsistent with the physiological and
psychological make-up of woman in general. It is a
medical fact that during their monthly periods and
during their pregnancies, women undergo various
physiological and psychological changes. Such changes
may occur during an emergency situation, thus
affecting her decision, without considering the
excessive strain which is produced. Moreover, some
decisions require a maximum of rationality and a
minimum of emotionality - a requirement which does
not coincide with the instinctive nature of women.
Even in modern times, and in the most developed
countries, it is rare to find a woman in the position
of a head of state acting as more than a figurehead,
a woman commander of the armed services, or even a
proportionate number of women representatives in
parliaments, or similar bodies. One can not possibly
ascribe this to backwardness of various nations or to
any constitutional limitation on woman's right to be
in such a position as a head of state or as a member
of the parliament. It is more logical to explain the
present situation in terms of the natural and
indisputable differences between man and woman, a
difference which does not imply any "supremacy" of
one over the other. The difference implies rather the
"complementary" roles of both the sexes in life.
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The first part of this paper deals briefly with the
position of various religions and cultures on the
issue under investigation. Part of this exposition
extends to cover the general trend as late as the
nineteenth century, nearly 1300 years after the
Qur'an set forth the Islamic teachings.
In the
second part of the paper, the status of women in
Islam is briefly discussed. Emphasis in this part is
placed on the original and authentic sources of
Islam. This represents the standard according to
which degree of adherence of Muslims can be judged.
It is also a fact that during the downward cycle of
Islamic Civilization, such teachings were not
strictly adhered to by many people who profess to be
Muslims. Such deviations were unfairly
exaggerated by some writers, and the worst of this,
were superficially taken to represent the teachings
of "Islam" to the Western reader without taking the
trouble to make any original and unbiased study of
the authentic sources of these teachings.
Even with such deviations three facts are worth
mentioning:
- The history of Muslims is rich
with women of great achievements in all walks of life
from as early as the seventh century (B.C.)
- It is impossible for anyone to justify any mistreatment
of woman by any decree of rule embodied in the
Islamic Law, nor could anyone dare to cancel, reduce,
or distort the clear-cut legal rights of women given
in Islamic Law.
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Throughout history, the
reputation, chastity and maternal role of Muslim
women were objects of admiration by impartial
observers.
It is also worthwhile to state that
the status which women reached during the present era
was not achieved due to the kindness of men or due to
natural progress. It was rather achieved through a
long struggle and sacrifice on woman's part and only
when society needed her contribution and work, more
especial!; during the two world wars, and due to the
escalation of technological change.
In the case of Islam such compassionate and dignified status was
decreed, not because it reflects the environment of
the seventh century, nor under the threat or pressure
of women and their organizations, but rather because
of its intrinsic truthfulness.
If this indicates
anything, it would demonstrate the divine origin of
the Qur'an and the truthfulness of the message of
Islam, which, unlike human philosophies and
ideologies, was far from proceeding from its human
environment, a message which established such humane
principles as neither grew obsolete during the course
of time and after these many centuries, nor can
become obsolete in the future. After all, this is the
message of the All-Wise and all-knowing God whose
wisdom and knowledge are far beyond the ultimate in
human thought and progress.
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The Holy, Qur'an:
Translation of verses is heavily based on A. Yusuf
Ali's translation, The Glorious Qur'an, text
translation, and Commentary, The American Trust
Publication, Plainfield, IN 46168, 1979.
Abd Al-Ati, Hammudah, Islam in Focus, The American Trust
Publications, Plainfield, IN 46168, 1977.
Allen, E. A., History of Civilization, General Publishing
House, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1889, Vol. 3.
Al Siba'i, Mustafa, Al-Alar'ah Baynal Fiqh Walqanoon (in
Arabic), 2nd. ea., Al-Maktabah Al-Arabiah, Halab,
Syria, 1966.
El-Khouli, Al-Bahiy, "Min Usus Kadiat Al-Mara'ah" (in Arabic),
A 1- Waay A l-lslami,
Ministry of Walcf, Kuwait, Vol.3 (No. 27), June 9,
1967, p.17.
Encyclopedia Americana (International
Edition), American Corp., N.Y., 1969, Vol.29.
Encyclopedia Biblica (Rev.T.K.Cheynene and J.S.Black,
editors), The Macmillan Co., London, England, 1902,
Vol.3.
The Encyclopedia Britannica, (11 th ed.),
University Press Cambridge, England, 191 1, Vol.28.
Encyclopedia Britannica, The Encyclopedia
Britannica, Inc., Chicago, III., 1968, Vol.23.
Hadeeth. Most of the quoted Hadeeth were translated
by the writer. They are quoted in various Arabic
sources. Some of them, however, were translated
directly from the original sources. Among the sources
checked are Musnad Ahmad Ibn Hanbal Dar AlMa'aref,
Cairo, U.A.R., 1950, and 1955, Vol.4 and
3,SunanIbnMajah, Dar Ihya'a Al-Kutub al-Arabiah,
Cairo, U.A.R., 1952, Vol.l, Sunan al-Tirimidhi,
Vol.3.
Mace, David and Vera, Marriage: East and
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