KNOWLEDGE-BASED SOCIO-SCIENTIFIC SYSTEM:

COMPARATIVE ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVES

Dr Masudul Alam Choudhury*

&

Dr Gabor Korvin**

Abstract

The scientific research program of a knowledge-induced systems approach to socio-scientific conceptualization is invoked here to develop a human resource model. Knowledge-induced fields are shown to arise from the process order of an interactive, integrative and evolutionary (IIE) world view of learning. It carries an intrinsically embryonic and pervasive learning process. Such a process is called the Shura in Qur'an and as in the Qur'an, this process is taken in its universal meaning of interactions, integration (consensus) and further creative evolution. It is found to give rise to a unique theory of systems with an universal paradigm and application that are premised on the unity of knowledge (Tawhid). We test out the validity of this model for human development as objectified by the concept of a well-being criterion function. Analytical methods and an empirical example using Monte Carlo simulation algorithm underlying the knowledge-induced processual worldview are provided to establish the analytical and applied contexts of the IIE-model. Human resource development premised on the underlying epistemology of unity of knowledge and a unified worldview is thus shown to yield a revolutionary perspective in a substantively interdisciplinary curriculum development in human sciences and engineering.

Objective

Against the Background of Moral and Ethical Foundations of Scientific Inquiry

Are natural sciences completely devoid of moral and religious values? A frequently quoted anecdote in favor of this view is the story of Pierre Simon de Laplace (1749-1827) who presented Napoleon with a copy of his fundamental work on astronomy, the Méchanique céleste. Napoleon asked him about an apparent oversight. “You have written this huge book on the system of the world without once mentioning the Author of the universe.” “Sire”, Laplace replied, “I had no need of that hypothesis.” (Bell, 1965).

The following quotes claim on the other hand, that scientific, technological and social theories, and thereby their applications are inherently based on some underlying epistemology premised on ethical values and morality (Ghazzali quoted by Berggren1992, Einstein undated, Barrow 1990):

Berggren writes (1992, p. 315): ….an important segment of Islamic thinkers – al-Ghazzali among them – argued that although a knowledge of the basics of the ancient sciences was important for the Islamic community, excessive study of them could lead to conceit and a falling away from the faith.”

Einstein wrote (undated): “Ethical directives can be made rational and coherent by logical thinking and empirical knowledge”… He continues on: “It is the privilege of man's genius, impersonated by inspired individuals, to advance ethical axioms which are so comprehensive and so well founded that men will accept them as grounded in the vast mass of their individual emotional experiences. Ethical axioms are founded and tested not differently from the axioms of science. Truth is what stands the test of experience.”

Barrow writes (1990): The current breed of candidates of the title of a `Theory of Everything' hope to provide an encapsulation of all the laws of nature into a simple and single representation. The fact that such a unification is even sought tells us something important about our expectations regarding the Universe. These we must have derived from an amalgam of our previous experience of the world and our inherited religious beliefs about its ultimate Nature and significance. Our monotheistic traditions reinforce the assumption that the Universe is at root a unity, that is not governed by different legislation in different places, neither the residue of some clash of Titans wrestling to impose their arbitrary wills upon the Nature of things, nor the compromise of some cosmic committee.

The difference though in the treatment of ethics and values in such socio-scientific phenomena lies in the way that values can be functionally integrated with socio-scientific inquiry and not be simply exogenously invoked and imposed in an otherwise ethically neutral conception.

The enforcement - rather than functional integration - of an exogeneous value system upon sciences has always had harmful effects. Recall from the recent past what Marxists/Maoists and the postmodernist academic “Left” had done to natural sciences – see Gross et al. 1994, Dauben 1998.

This endogeneity of ethics and values is a path-breaking outlook of a new body of socio-scientific research program that assumes a knowledge-induced worldview of a process-oriented type. Its seeds are to be found not in the rationalistic foundation of received scientific doctrines and in the human resource development that has gone on for so long to enforce this kind of perception. The entrenched feature of rationalism is the epistemology of a purely humanly perceived system of reasoning that shifts by the force of refutation and falsification randomly (Bartley 1988). Consequently, there is no self-referencing of the doctrine of any body of thought by an immutable precept within itself. Such falsification that emanates from the supremacy of the individualist self and the pluralistic nature of scientific discourse leads to a random development of a plethora of competing doctrines and their consequential applications. In the end, harmony among the disciplines is reduced by the rise of pluralism in scientific inquiry.

Examples of the rationalistic effects in view of the underlying dualism in them are the disparate theories and views between quantum physics and relativistic physics despite the best efforts to combine them to date by means of quantum gravity (Weinberg 1992, Penrose 1989). Then there are the disparate perceptions on prices, output and policy matters to be found between microeconomics and macroeconomics (Thurow 1983). In the philosophy of science pluralism has been entrenched in rationalism by falsification emanating from Popper's idea of a conjectural universe (Popper 1991). Even in the best of classical work on highly moral texts the unifying function of divine laws remains evasive (Kant 1977). Descartes used the same kind of dualism to describe his separation of logical positivism from normative scientific foundations (Descartes 1988). Such a separation between science and morals raises the problem of analytical synthesis between the science and morality (Carnap 1966, Dampier 1961).

Hence the question of self-referencing as the central issue of unification in the sciences on a cross-disciplinary basis becomes the foundational methodology for scientific research on unity of scientific knowledge. We are led here to invoke the central place that Qur'an has given to the Oneness of Allah (Tawhid) as the foundation of Unity of Knowledge, from which flows all worldly knowledge through the enactment of Divine Laws when transmitted by the Sunnah (guidance) of the Prophet Muhammad and the process of Ijtihad (rule setting on the basis of Qur'an and Sunnah) for a precise and regimented way of comprehending the divine laws in life and experience.

The socio-scientific precept of Qur'an is thus both initially premised on unity and is continuously discovered in the experiential world by the enactment of systemic unity taken up in its diverse forms. This is indeed the essence of unity within diversity. The Qur'anic worldview is presented as being permanently prevailing in world-systems (a'lameen). It is reflected by the essential paired nature of creative forms taken up in bundles of goods (and bads) within the extensively interactive view of a diversely rich socio-scientific order characterized by systemic balance (e.g. of agriculture, ecology, institutions and cosmic order in the Qur'an). This interactively balanced or integrated configuration of the Qur'anic world view is functionally comprehended by the principle of Shura (consultation) in the Qur'an. Yet by the Shuratic principle here we derive from the Qur'an its meaning in terms of knowledge-induced interactions, integration and creative evolution to more of the same in continuity and in a way that remains embedded in all creative orders. This process is not limited simply to political and institutional forms. Thus the relevance of the Shuratic process in scientific inquiry emerges.

Finally, the continuation and reaffirmation of this Shuratic process-oriented domain of knowledge flows emanating from the fundamental epistemology of the Oneness of Allah (Unity of Knowledge), is perpetuated across interactively integrating world-systems through creative re-origination (evolutionary epistemology). In the Qur'an this last stage of the emergent continuing process orientation to learning and moral becoming within all systems is referred to as the Qur'anic meaning of Khalq in-Jadid (emergent re-originated orders). Knowledge in both its primordial forms and in flows emanating from the epistemology thus becomes the unifying foundation and the emergent process of the Qur'anic worldview. All cognitive and observed forms (ayath al-Allah) appear and reconstruct within this uniquely knowledge-inducing systemic process.

The Historian of Medieval Islam Civilization, Franz Rosenthal, held `ilm [=knowledge] as “one of those concepts that have dominated Islam and given Muslim civilization its distinctive shape and complexion”. Imâm Bukhârî put his “Book on Knowledge”, Kitâb ul-`ilm, at the beginning of his Sahîh, immediately after the “Book on Faith”. At this point it should be noted that English only has a single word for “knowledge”. This term cannot thereby express the two levels of knowledge as in Arabic (`ilm/ma`rifa), German (wißen/kennen) or French (savoir/connaître). In the present context, we shall be concerned with the process of gaining practical knowledge (ma`rifa) from the epistemological mooring, which is the source of the moral laws (Kamali 1991, Masud 1997).

Towards a Qur'anic Scientific Worldview

The understanding of Divine Unity as the epistemology of the Divine Laws externalized to the experiential domain through the combination of Sunnah, Ijtihad, Shura and Khalq in-Jadid assumes a highly organized, definitive and analytical methodology (Choudhury 1998). Human resource development that becomes causally entrenched in this knowledge-induced world-system is the carrier of three most central elements, namely, balance, commitment and motivation (Frank 1988). Choudhury has shown elsewhere (1995a) that a process-oriented circularity among these three precepts determines the relationships of an Islamization process. The circular causation¹ among balance, commitment and motivation projects ‘onto' the human possibility to know, to renew in a balanced way and to pursue that capability through motivation and commitment in perpetuity. This causal interrelationship occurring in perpetuity then determines the knowledge-inducing domain.

In turn, justice as the essence of a grand balance in both the human and cosmic systems is combined with the purpose for attaining the level of justice. In other words, while justice is the quintessence of reality, purpose is the power of understanding and applying the divine precept of justice to life. Commitment is intensified by the emanating proven results of the Shuratic process pertaining to all real world phenomena. Hence commitment is determined by certainty and well-being of the results that emanate from the Shuratic process of interactions (I) leading to integration (I) and the two leading to creatively evolutionary (E) knowledge-inducing processes of similar kind. This circular causation process is referred to in this paper as the IIE-methodology. It is identical with the Shuratic process.

Motivation is a monotonically positive function of commitment occurring in perpetuity. It reflects the persistent will to improve well-being through the possibilities realized in interactive world-systems. Such a domain includes science, technology, economy, institutions and society. Human resource is then seen as an instrumental mechanism premised on the knowledge forming premise of unity as it is carried through by flows of knowledge emanating through compounded interactions among world-systems, each of which is simultaneously impacted upon by justice, commitment and motivation. In turn, each of these three consequences are simultaneously realized by the primal attributes, namely, Justice (balance = ‘Adl or Mizan), Purpose (= Maqasid), Certainty (= Haqq al-Yaqin), Well-Being (= Falah),² Creative Evolution (= Khalq in-Jadid).

Imam Fakhruddin Razi considered the role of ethical and moral values in a similar way in terms of divine attributes (Noor 1998). Unlike Maslow who considered hierarchies of self-actualization starting from the basic needs (food) to security, property rights, social needs and then moral needs in this order (Maslow 1968), Razi made conscious obedience of Allah (Ubudiyyah) as the foundation of knowledge and self-actualization. From the epistemology of Ubudiyyah was thought to emanate the organization of self, society and human fulfillment. Maslow's hierarchical method can thus be inverted into a continuous form of divinely knowledge-induced progression of knowing reality and human fulfillment in Razi's self-actualization model (Choudhury 1995).

The verses of the Qur'anic Chapter on Light (Qur'an 24:35) also mention the five stages emanating from the root of Tawhid leading to continuity in the Tree of Knowledge (Blessed Tree = Shajarat ul-Mubarakah). These stages are the niché (essential guidance), lamp (showing the way), glass and star (interchangeably certainty and well-being) and the emergent blessed tree (i.e. progression of knowledge).

Imam Ghazzali considered similar four stages to explain his path to divine wisdom (Karim undated). Ghazzali wrote that there are four stages toward understanding Tawhid (Oneness of Allah). The first stage is like the outer cover of the coconut; the second stage is like the inner cover of the coconut; the third stage is like the kernel of the coconut; the fourth stage is like the oil of the kernel. To this can be added the evolutionary process of learning towards Tawhid. This last stage helps to overcome the metaphysical problem of self-annihilation (fana fil-Tawhid) into which Ghazzali's philosophy stumbled.

Stock and Flow of Knowledge in the Framework of Divine Unity

Henceforth we will treat the Complete and Absolute Epistemology of Divine Knowledge as the Stock. Emanating from this fundamental epistemology of Unity of Knowledge are the Flows of knowledge carrying and conveying unity of systems. Such flows are derived by the exercise of Sunnah and Ijtihad in the way of the Shuratic process as mentioned above. Intrinsic in the realization of knowledge flows from the epistemology of Divine Stock is the enabling function of the divine attributes, namely the vector {Justice (Balance), Purpose, Certainty, Well-Being and Creative Evolution}. These attributes are carried through in perpetuity through stages of Islamization by means of human resource development inculcating balance, commitment and motivation of the attributes.

By means of the above-mentioned depiction of the Shuratic process in the sciences, the fundamental principle of Divine Unity and its creative manifestation in the unified but diverse world-system, becomes epistemologically embedded. Hence, self-referencing to unity is reflectively established both epistemologically and ontologically to confirm the immutable foundation of unity and its associated creative systems in life. This axiomatic premise of the Qur'anic theory of knowledge replaces pluralism and methodological independence between the disciplines by a unique methodology of unity of knowledge. Only the specific problems of different disciplines may differ. Yet these different problems are interrelated by the extension of inter- and intra-systemic knowledge flows through interactions, integration and creative evolution (the IIE-model) premised on divine unity. This unique methodology and its pervasively continuous reference to the epistemological and ontological moorings of divine unity is the essence of unity in the socio-scientific order. Here self-referencing to unity being immutable it negates the randomly pluralistic understanding of reality by rationalism as presented by Campbell (1988).

It is interesting to note that in this computer age the use of large interacting systems of equations, variables, their relations, institutional and agency specific interrelations are increasingly determining the landscape of a systemic approach to the study of socio-scientific phenomena. Such an idea of a universalizing systems theory presents the scientific research program of endogenous ethical values in socio-scientific studies. The endogenous ethical methodology is an emerging scientific program contrary to the exogenous treatment of ethics and values in science, technology, institutions, economics and society. This would include incorporating the study of the ethical dimension in theorems of mathematical incompleteness (Godel 1965), in the process view of science (Hull 1988), a systemic study of entropy in thermodynamics (Prigogine 1955) and in complexity theory (Kellert 1994).

Brief Definitions of Underlying Terms

1. Systemic Knowledge

By systemic knowledge we mean a continuum of interactive learning that results in convergence, consensus and evolutionary equilibria. But due to knowledge-induced sensitizing of the field of variables and their relations in such IIE-processes and the inherently incomplete and cumulative knowledge flows, entities do not remain in steady-state equilibria. Thus, while inter- and intra-systemic complementarities lead interactions into convergence i.e. systemic integration, yet the attained states are of temporary type. They subsequently and continuously emerge into evolutionary movements. Systemic knowledge flows in such a circular causation become the cause and effect of the conjoint interrelationships among the interactive, integrative and evolutionary entities of the induced fields.

2. The Epistemology of the Interactive, Integrative and Evolutionary (IIE) Field

The epistemology or the axiomatic premise of a systems theory of IIE-process is a set of textual laws that are then discoursed and advanced by human participation institutionally, socially, politically, scientifically with respect to the problems at hand. The initial conditions of convergence that both cause and emanate from systemic complementarity, is the essential functional understanding of unification by knowledge. It is derived from the essentially paired nature within diversity of the Qur'anic universe. Here is where neither philosophical rationalism nor any concept of human rationality can help out, be these bounded rationality or not (Etzioni 1988).

The epistemology of unity comprises the legacy of civilizations embalmed in writs of laws, morality and ethical worldviews without harbouring in them any trace of Eurocentricity and hegemony of power and privileges. Examples of such consensual states are the dawning of an ecological age (Korten 1990); the tenets of social justice and liberty (Kant 1977); institutional and social co-determination in a democratic society (Sztompka 1991). Boulding talked about an ethically sensitive economic order that would act as an interactive system in his Total Social System (Boulding 1971). At the end we note that there is the essence of a permanently systemic complementarity that needs to be studied and analytically as well as empirically endogenized within a systems approach to socio-scientific theory.

3. Attributes of the Epistemological Premise of a Universal Systems Theory

The epistemological premise is engineered by its Attributes (A) referred to earlier:

A={Justice (J), Purpose (P), Certainty or Security (C), Well-Being (F), Creative Evolution (E)}.

With these five attributes the Stock of Knowledge denoted by W for the epistemological premise is defined in the functional form, W = W(A). Note how Akhira (Hereafter) and the worldly affairs (Dunya) are now integrated together through the function of knowledge, divine attributes and the Tawhidi epistemological premise. In this, q(A) e W; and all cognitive forms, x(q), are functions of derived knowledge flows. The vector, (q,x(q)), defines the well-being criterion function according to the principle of strong and pervasive complementarity within diversity..

Furthermore, since W(A) is the Stock of Knowledge, therefore to it must belong knowledge flows generated in the IIE sense denoted by {q} e W(A). But the constancy of W must also imply the constancy of the primal attributes A. Only {q} varies as knowledge flows within the IIE world

view causing systemic interrelationships among q-values and their knowledge-induced forms to appear, change and evolve. Such variations assume interpretive forms, whereby participation, co-determination and institutionalism are involved. These actions take the form of endogenous institutions, endogenous policies (e.g. ecologically determined policies), endogenous preference changes among consumers, institutions, governments, producers and entrepreneurs, engineers, technologists and scientists. Causally thereby, market perspectives are changed and simulated in a systemic framework with the IIE-process of knowledge formation acting upon and in turn getting evolutionary responses from the endogenous preferences of agents, endogenous production menus and endogenous interactions between the production and distribution of wealth, its entitlement and ownership.

We bring out the IIE-process in the chain interrelationship (1):

(1) W(A) ®_S {q} ®_f {x(q)} ®_SW SW(x(q),q) ®_S' {q'}®{x'(q')}®SW'(x'(q'),q') ® etc.

Epistemology ® systemic ® knowledge ® formation of ® new evolutionary IIE processes regenerated

knowledge induced socio- well-being by continuum of interactions and integration.

flows economic system

The symbols, S, f, SW, S etc. denote the transmission mappings from one stage to another in IIE. The implication of well-being can be extended to a broadest possible category of similar criterion functions in the sciences and socio-economic fields. A strong implication of the above circular causality is that certainty causes well-being, which is post-evaluated through the medium of discourse and analytical examination. This stage causes new q-values to emerge and so on.

The flow relationship of {q}-values to the Stock of Knowledge that is W(A) is well explained by Yusuf Ali (1942) in relation to the commentary to the Qur'anic verse (XLIII:4) as follows:

The Mother of the Book, the Foundation of Revelation, the Preserved Tablet (Lauh Mahfuz) is the core or essence of revelation, the original principle or fountain-head of God's Eternal and Universal Law. From this fountain-head are derived all streams of knowledge and wisdom that flow through Time and feed the intelligence of created minds. The Mother of the Book is in God's own Presence, and its dignity and wisdom are more than all we can think of in the spiritual world.

4. The Well-Being Function

The endogenously ethical transformation of the socio-scientific domain in the framework of knowledge flows is evaluated by means of the well-being function. The well-being is characterized as a positive monotone functional of a system of complementary interrelationships among the sequences of {q}-variables and their induced socio-economic effects denoted by the vector {x(q)}. The attributes and epistemology thus come into confluence in the well-being functional through the sequences of IIE-complementarities with the advance of endogenous knowledge formation and its induction of the socio-scientific order. Through such a convergence of IIE-processes substantive interdisciplinarity is established between agent-specific preferences, developmental transformation and the endogenous institutional actions, responses and human resource development.

Since, dSW/dq = S_xÎx (¶SW/¶x).(dx/dq) > 0, because of systemic complementarity in a monotonic sense, it therefore implies that, (¶SW/¶x) > 0, which in turn can be true if and only if (dx/dq) > 0, for each xÎx(q). Furthermore, in the IIE-evolutionary sense, dx/dq = f(x'(q)), a functional relationship of newly evolved q-value. Hence, df'(q)/dq > 0. Likewise, by the IIE complementarity and because of the circular causation process among {q)-values, x(q)-values and SW(x(q),q)-values, we obtain, ¶SW/¶x = g(x'(q'),q'), whereby, dg/dq > 0. Thus finally, (d/dq)(dSW/dq) > 0. We note that the postulate of marginal rate of substitution that governs both neoclassical economics as well as Darwinism in science does not hold in the well-being function. The resulting principle of strong and pervasive complementarity is derived from the essentially paired nature of possibilities appearing in the universe as explained by the Qur'an.

Methodological Issues

We will now formalize the methodology behind the systems approach to the study of the complex IIE-phenomenon in knowledge-induced fields. We will also point out how this systems methodology can interface with computer-assisted animation of simulation results, causality and sensations that are generated from the mathematical analysis using detailed functional forms of expression (1).

As mentioned earlier, knowledge in this project always means recursive sensations that are causally simulated in systems by means of interactions leading to unification in the epistemological sense (state of integration derived from interactions), and these two lead to further dynamic evolution towards more learning of the same kind. The principle of universal complementarity that emanates from such pervasively interacting, integrating and dynamically creative strings of relational causality takes place among systemic variables, their relations, agents and institutions. The IIE-process repeats itself both spatially and intertemporally.

The definition of knowledge field is that of a flux of interrelationships of IIE-entities. The knowledge field is thereby described by flows forming nexus of IIE-forms. Such domains ebb and flow as knowledge (or ‘de-knowledge')³ and get re-generated in continuum in the midst of the relational complexity.

In this systemic order, the transmission of IIE-entities of relational forms into their depiction in visual forms can be accomplished by the medium of mathematical topology and simulation. Such formalized results and sensations can be continuously mapped as computer language for visual displays. We thereby have two levels of IIE-forms here. First, the mathematical models theoretically construct the IIE-knowledge fields, whereby relational nexus domains are developed. Secondly, these mathematical entities are then mapped into information sets developed by computer-assisted designs. From such general systems of transmitting interrelations can be formed the animation of abstract entities.

The transmission mappings interrelate the two IIE-fields, namely the abstract nexus domains of IIE-entities, and the visualizing of these sensations by computer designs. Remember that the systems oriented scientific research project is for developing a general systems theory in the IIE-knowledge fields. Hence there is no need to be specific to any given discipline here. The universality of such a general systems theory will encompass engineering machines as well as world-systems.

To formalize, let S_I denote sets of information that intersect, meaning that mathematical interrelationships occur. Thereby, for two systems of sets, the mathematical relationships,

f_i (S_i(q_ikl))Í S_j(q_jkl), i¹j. F = {q_skl}

are knowledge parameters that arise due to the IIE dynamic learning phenomenon. ‘i' and ‘j' denote numbered systems; ‘k' denotes agencies involved in the IIE phenomenon; ‘l' denotes the number of intersections in the learning process. The triplet, {S_j(q_jkl), f_i (S_i(q_ikl)),F} constitutes the knowledge field of the system of IIE-entities denoted by {S_j(q_jkl), f_i (S_i(q_ikl))}, with i,j,k,l as defined. Thus we find that every variable and its interrelationships with the other ones within diverse systems, is functionally established by the knowledge set, F = {q_skl}. This phenomenon of knowledge-induced fields of actions, that is of knowledge formation in F and of its response, which means knowledge induction of the systemic variables and their interrelations, {S_j(q_jkl), f_i (S_i(q_ikl))}, makes the knowledge field to be of the endogenous type in knowledge flows. On this knowledge field, interactions, integration and creative evolution can be substantively studied (Choudhury 1993a).

Simulation Studies based on the IIE-Methodology

1. An IIE-Simulation Model

An example of a mathematical functional in the knowledge field is the well-being function (as opposed to social welfare function of neoclassical genre) (Choudhury 1998):

Simulate {q} SW(x_j(q_jkl), q_jkl), …… (2)

subject to, x_j(q_jkl) = g(x_j'(q_j'kl), q_j'kl ½SW₀)

and, q_jkl = h(x_j(q_jkl)½SW₀)

Expressions (2) represent a system of JxK equations, given simulated values of SW across interactions (l), with the initial value being SW₀; x_j(q_jkl) denoting a vector of recursively interrelated systems variables; q_jkl denoting a sequence of endogenously determined knowledge simulations; g and h are functionals. The appearance of ½ means condition to the occurrence of its right-hand-side function. One can show these nexus groupings in a matrix form (Choudhury 1993b).

The recursively simulated results of the above IIE-system can be continuously transmitted to computer language to generate visually active flux of knowledge fields responding and kaleidoscopically changing in hues and colours of the computer animated knowledge fields. There would also exist the reverse interrelationships, as stored computer information feed into further mathematical simulations, and so on, as in the case of the Geographical Information System (GIS). We have thus the transmissions described by the following string:

2. Simulation Example

In order to show the empirical viability of the knowledge-induced recursive model in engineering and science we have used an example from economic geophysics in relation to the concept of “profit” being dynamically combined by economic gain and knowledge input.

We shall be concerned with the Monte Carlo simulation of search for deep-lying, hidden oil and gas reservoirs⁴ by means of seismic techniques. In the seismic technique (see e.g. Telford et al. 1990) we send acoustic vibrations down the Earth and use the back-reflected waves to detect deep-lying oil and gas deposits beneath the surface (Korvin 1992). The seismic measurements are carried out along two perpendicular systems of parallel lines, called profiles, say along a set of NS-oriented lines spaced a distance Dx apart, and a set of EW-oriented lines spaced a distance Dy apart. The measuring geometry is called a 3-D (three-dimensional) seismic survey (Al-Husseini & Chimblo, 1994).

The measurements along each seismic profiles are independently repeated ‘n' times to reduce noise. The number ‘n' is called fold-number. In practice it can be as large as several hundreds. The triple, (Dx, Dx, n) is the exploration policy. Given this exploration policy we can compute the exploration costs and the expected economic value of the reservoirs found. The expected profit as economic value net of total cost can now be simulated by means of the Monte Carlo technique (Korvin 1995). This was done by generating a random distribution of hydrocarbon reservoirs and simulating the geophysical exploration process according to the policy vector, (Dx, Dx, n).

We have made the following set of assumptions in the Monte Carlo Simulation method:

* The cost of the seismic lines is 1,000 US$/mile for single fold, and increases linearly with fold number

* The cost of drilling is 750, 000 US$/well

* The value of a productive target is proportional to target area: 1 million US$/mile²

* The probability of productivity of a target is q=0.4.

· The probability of detecting a target if a seismic line passes above it is p=p(n), where the detection probability vs. fold-number dependence p(n) is given by the following equations:

P=x ²/(x²+1) with x=S/N; x(n)=0.25×n^1/2

There are 35 elliptical shaped reservoirs, their size and shape imitate those of the Sparky field (Canada), the major axes of the ellipses are aligned parallel with the X-coordinate axis.

If we compare this Monte Carlo experiment with the IIE system equation (2), we immediately see that only the very first step of IIE had been actually executed. We started out from a given knowledge system q, which in this example consisted of set of parameters describing the distribution of the number of targets, of their size, of their orientation, of their productivity, etc. The profit, which was based on economic considerations alone, has been derived from the knowledge system, and even a way was found to optimize this profit. The deficiency of this approach, and of all similar exercises in operations research, has been that there was no iterative feedback leading to evolution.

To make a step towards this direction, observe that in real life our a priori knowledge system is necessarily incomplete, or in some of its details totally incorrect. An IIE-based approach to the above-discussed simulation problem would proceed in the following steps:

* Suppose that the geology of the unknown site is completely described by a knowledge vector q, containing the number of targets, their location, their size, and their productivity.

* Before starting the experiment, we only have an initial guess q₀ of this knowledge vector.

* Based on q_o, we find the optimal exploration policy using the above Monte Carlo approach

* The computer generates a random realization of the geology based on the correct probability distributions q₀ . We start measuring over this geology, and in addition to finding productive targets, we also find information about the correct probability distributions which can be used to update q₀ into q₁ .

* Based on q₁ we find by Monte Carlo an improved exploration policy. Actually, at this stage we must have already realized that a gain in information about the real knowledge vector q is as valuable a profit as an economic one. We invest back a fraction of our profit earned in the previous steps into an apparently unprofitable “theoretical” research (actualized in the example by too small Dx, Dy or too large n) just to learn more about the statistical distributions.

* The process will converge to a maximal possible profit, and to an accurate knowledge:q₀ ,q₁ ¼® q.

On studying our simulation results we note some interesting facts in relation to the recursive production of knowledge on geophysical exploration. Observe that in the IIE-model of simulation the “value of information” problem⁵ (of Brillouin and Good) has completely disappeared because every bit of information (about q) has been utilized to improve the exploration strategy and thus it has lead to a measurable increase in the expected profit.

We can make the following inferences with respect to the expanding knowledge-induced simulation field described by (Dx, Dy, n): First, we note that in a more general simulation of scientific research the parameters Dx, Dy, ¼ would signify the hardware needed for the experiments (equipment, computers, software, etc.) while n would refer to the human effort involved (as total man-hours devoted to research, etc.). In the present example the effects of Dx, Dy and of n on cost and on efficiency are quite different. If the spacing Dx, Dy between the seismic lines is for example halved, the seismic exploration cost will be doubled. We get the same two-fold increase if we use the same Dx, Dy but 2n instead of n. Generally

Seismic cost(D/l,D/l,n)=Seismic cost(Dx,Dy,ln).

Note that as the value of n increases, the exploration results leads to greater certainty⁶ for the geophysical reservoirs. Consequently, the singularity value of the simulated profit function for n = 48, denoted by P, is eliminated and a smooth surface is obtained for n = 96. Uncertainty (point P) is thus reduced while stable profits are generated with increased interactions (n-value) between the engineering techniques (drilling) and the physical environment (discovery of reservoirs). n = 96 requires a higher investment associated with drilling as indicated by an initial negative value of profit. Between n = 48 and n = 96 more stability in the yields is attained although short run profits for the case n = 96 are lower than those for n = 48.

In the knowledge-induced profit function, which is a proxy for our earlier mentioned well-being criterion function, the role of ‘n' is that of learning. Hence ‘n' signifies interactions generated between the agent and the geophysical environment. ‘n' is therefore a carrier of knowledge-flows, which were our q-values. Consequently, as in the case of the knowledge-induced variables in the well-being function, we now have the knowledge-induced profit function, p(q) = Economic Value – Cost(n), with n now being a function of learning in the exploration process that unifies (integrates) the knowledge of the explorer with the discovery knowledge embedded in the geophysical field. The agent cannot claim pari passu an ‘optimum' economic value of the reservoirs unless it is definitely known. Consequently, no pricing and revenue calculations can be done ad hoc by an explorer as otherwise is found to be the case in rent-seeking exploration of economic staples (Matthews 1981). Likewise, the same unifying process of knowledge reduces unit cost as agent-nature interactions proceed, and this too is a result of costing real deposits rather than capitalized values of unfound deposits. Between a real valuation of profits and costs we thus come up with a certainty equivalent of uncertain economic value as q proceeds, that is an exploration being carried by n.

The other inference we draw from the simulation result is that equating ‘n' to a monotonic function of q-values, causes a three-dimensional relationship corresponding to figure 2. Such topological balls when mapped ‘onto' (Dx,Dy), would transform the grids shown in figure 2 into intersecting and expanding balls. These are mathematical configurations that have not been treated here.

A Policy Perspective for Human Resource Development: Towards a Science and Engineering Curriculum According to the IIE Model

It is obvious now that the knowledge premise of the well-being function or its prototypes necessitates re-structuring of the educational system in accordance with Shari'ah so that human resource is modeled keeping a purposive socio-scientific perspective in view. Such an educational change is to be carried out by merging a conventional educational curriculum with the investigative study of Qur'an and Sunnah that can lead to dynamic derivations of rules of Shari'ah (Ahkam as-Shari'ah) on specific and diverse human issues. The process here is to be carried out both at the levels of epistemology, methodology, methods and analytics, policy-making and application to specific issues within the ummah (world nation of Islam) and outside.

The core of educational change would be to target and develop the unique methodology of the interactive, integrative and evolutionary process (IIE-methodology) as derived from the Qur'an and Sunnah. The same model would then have to be explainable and applied to all kinds of problems and issues, be these of science, technology, academia, markets, institutions or polity. Thus we derive the concept of substantive interdisciplinarity and of the grand socio-scientific order (Choudhury 1995b).

We note in such a curriculum design that the uniqueness of the new methodology is obtained from its substantive and universal nature at the level of epistemology in all physical, social and engineering sciences. This methodology is not of the nature of simply developing expertise in rationalist educational systems, where interdisciplinary segmentation leads the way to mutual exclusiveness in specialization. The result of such contrary methodological segmentation has been the formation of human resources that cater to certain notions of efficiency of markets, production and technology in support of this very idea of interdisciplinary segmentation. The consequential competitive tradeoffs among viable alternatives occur in factor markets along with the underlying kind of human resource specialization.

The nature of educational change in the light of a merging between the epistemological outlook of the new methodology and the conventional educational curriculum at all levels, is a unique way of developing original, critical and highly analytical approaches to theoretical and applied knowledge of specific issues and problems. In this IIE-perspective of educational curriculum development, the critical wisdom gained makes the study of all modern doctrines simply for purposes of contrasting and comparing them with the essential Islamic epistemological world view.⁷ Besides, the same methodological approach also grounds the study of Qur'an and Sunnah on analytical and applied grounds. This is a causal result of the nature of well-being criterion for the knowledge-induced variables and their complementary interrelations.

It is well known that the rationalistic philosophy of education have grounded the Muslim nations into a borrowed system that does not adapt to the reality of the great complementary way of understanding the universe as bestowed in the Qur'an and Sunnah. Rationalistic philosophy in education, social, natural and engineering sciences, are fundamentally premised on the tradeoff idea among possibilities that we referred to earlier. The knowledge-centered world view emanating from the Qur'an and Sunnah as we have explained above negates this philosophy of science.

CONCLUSION

This paper provided a brief though comprehensive introduction to the important area of systemic investigation of socio-scientific issues by providing a unique theory of systems in terms of the IIE-knowledge centered process. Together with this the endogenously moral, institutional and policy implications of such a systemic approach were seen both at the theoretical and applied levels. With the help of computer-assisted programs, particularly those provided by GIS-methods, the sensations and causality of the knowledge fields introduced here can be captured. This can lead to computer-generated animated designs of the simulation results generated on a conceptually mathematical side. Conversely too, the stored information flows so generated in the GIS-system can be further used to generate data inputs as well as further simulations of the conceptual counter-system. The two sides thus remain in exact correspondence with each other. One such model of the knowledge-induced profit function in geological exploration was empirically estimated and the inferences drawn with respect to knowledge-induced effects.

These conceptual and empirical ramifications that have been taken up in this paper proved the powerful epistemological roots of the IIE-methodology emanating from Qur'an and Sunnah as possible educational direction for Saudi and Muslim curriculum development in the sciences. We provided one such example of curriculum development to bring out the analytical and substantively interdisciplinary nature of the IIE-methodology in the social, physical and engineering sciences.