Governors of Uthman

Amr Al 'Aas

Early Life

'Amr b Al 'Aas belonged to the Sahm section of the Quraish. When the Holy Prophet declared his mission, 'Amr was one of the great opponents of Islam. He even planned the murder of the Holy Prophet. When some of the Muslims migrated to Abyssinia, the Quraish sent a delegation to Abyssinia to prevail upon the Negus to expel the Muslims from his State. 'Amr was one of the members of this delegation. 'Amr was an active member of the delegation, but the delegation failed in its object. At the battle of Uhud, 'Amr commanded the Quraish cavalry.

Conversion to Islam

After the Hudaibiya Pact, 'Amr b Al 'Aas and Khalid b Walid came to Madina and were converted to Islam. On conversion, 'Amr b Al 'Aas wanted an assurance that his past sins had been forgiven, and the Holy Prophet gave him the necessary assurance. Thereafter he participated in all the battles fought under the Holy Prophet. In the apostasy wars under Abu Bakr, he undertook a campaign against the Kalb tribe. When Abu Bakr declared Jihad against the Byzantines, 'Amr offered his services and said, "I am one of the arrows of Allah, shoot me where you will."

Conquest of Egypt

Under Umar, 'Amr became the Governor of Palestine in 63X C.E. In 639 C.E. after the death of Ubaidullah b Jarah, 'Amr became the supreme commander of the armed forces in Syria. That provided him an opportunity to conquer Egypt. Umar was averse to the extension of Muslim dominions. When 'Amr b Al 'Aas pressed for the conquest of Egypt, Umar reluctantly gave his permission to try his luck in Egypt. 'Amr b Al 'Aas invaded Egypt with a small force in the closing months of 639 C.E. Egypt fell before the Muslim arms as if by a miracle.

'Amr b Al 'Aas as the Governor of Egypt

After the conquest of Egypt, Amr b Al 'Aas became the first Governor of Egypt. Egypt was the richest province in the Muslim dominions, but the revenues that 'Amr b Al 'Aas sent to Madina from Egypt were not commensurate to the importance of the province Amr b Al 'Aas was a good administrator and a skilful General, but he was not an expert in financial affairs. There were complaints that the financial affairs of the province were not managed efficiently.

Later, Umar partitioned Egypt into two provinces, namely Upper Egypt with the capital at Fayyum, and Lower Egypt with the capital at Fustat. 'Amr b Al 'Aas remained the Governor of Lower Egypt, while Abdullah b Sa'ad b Abi Sarah was appointed as the Governor of Upper Egypt.

The measure of the partition was not popular with the people. 'Amr b Al 'Aas felt dissatisfied that his charge had been curtailed. Umar was a stern and hard task master and he suppressed all opposition with a stern hand.

Administration of Egypt under Uthman

In his testament, Umar had instructed his successor not to make any change in the administrative set up for one year after his death. True to these instructions, Uthman maintained the status quo in the administrative set up of Egypt.

'Amr b Al 'Aas smarted under the loss of power, and felt dissatisfied at the partition of the province. Soon after the death of Umar, 'Amr b Al 'Aas came to Madina, and apprised Uthman of the state of affairs in Egypt. He pointed out that Egypt was a unity, and its division into two provinces was undesirable politically as well as economically. He pressed Uthman to rescind the orders of partition, depose Abdullah b Sa'ad, and make him ('Amr) the Governor of United Egypt once again.

Uthman listened to the demands of 'Amr b Al 'Aas patiently. He said that in principle he agreed with him that the provinces of Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt should be reintegrated into one province. He said that because of the testament of Umar he was committed not to make any change in the administrative set up for one year. He wanted 'Amr to wait till one year was over, and he was free to act according to his own discretion and judgement. He also observed that Abdullah b Sa ad was his foster brother and he could not dispose him without cause.

'Amr b Al 'Aas said that he was the conqueror of Egypt and in order to maintain proper hold on the province it was necessary that all power was concentrated in his hands. 'Amr b Al 'Aas also complained bitterly against Abdullah b Sa'ad. Uthman pointed out that he was related both to him 'Amr as well as Abdullah b Sa'ad, and he should be given some time to resolve the dispute to the satisfaction of all concerned. 'Amr b Al 'Aas was married to a step-sister of Uthman while Abdullah was his foster brother. Uthman wanted to evolve some way whereby 'Amr b Al 'Aas and Abdullah b Sa'ad could be reconciled.

'Amr b Al 'Aas precipitated the crisis by giving the challenge that unless his demand was accepted, he would not return to Egypt. No argument availed with him, and in view of his refusal to return to Egypt unless his demand was accepted, Uthman had no option but to pass the order that 'Amr b Al 'Aas was not willing to carry on his responsibilities under the existence set up he was deposed, and Abdullah b Sa'ad would hold the charge of both the provinces.

'Amr b Al 'Aas made this order of deposition a cause of personal grievance. In a fit of anger he divorced the step sister of Uthman. He also declared that as his demand had not been accepted, and due regard had not been paid to his services as the Conqueror of Egypt, he would inflame the people against Uthman

Recall and re-deposition of 'Amr b Al 'Aas

Early in 646 C.E. a large Byzantine force landed at Alexandria and occupied it. From the base at Alexandria, the Byzantines planned to reconquer the whole of Egypt. The Muslims of Egypt sent a delegation to Madina to prevail on Uthman to restore 'Amr b Al 'Aas and appealed to him to take over the command of Egypt. He stipulated some terms which were accepted by Uthman. 'Amr b Al 'Aas was made the Governor of United Egypt, and he was also to be the supreme commander of the military forces in Egypt. Abdullah b Sa'ad was to hold a subordinate position under 'Amr b Al-'Aas .

'Amr b Al-'Aas took over the command in Egypt and drove away the Byzantines from the soil of Egypt. After the reconquest of Egypt another crisis developed. As under Abdullah b Sa'ad the revenues of the province had risen considerably, Uthman made Abdullah b Sa'ad hold independent charge of the Revenue Department while 'Amr b Al 'Aas was to be the Governor and supreme commander of the military forces. 'Amr b Al 'Aas protested against this arrangement. He said that under such an arrangement he would be holding the cow by the horns while some one else would be milking it. Uthman desired that 'Amr b Al 'Aas should guarantee that the revenues would not fall below the stipulated level 'Amr b Al-'Aas was not prepared to give even such guarantee. The dispute could not be resolved and ultimately Uthman passed orders for the deposition of 'Amr b Al 'Aas .

'Amr b Al 'Aas 's opposition to Uthman

After deposition 'Amr b Al 'Aas returned to Madina and spear-headed the movement for agitation against Uthman in Madina. 'Amr b Al 'Aas freely indulged in the criticism of Uthman, and lost no opportunity in agitating against Uthman. Once when Uthman took him to task for indulging in base talk, 'Amr b Al 'Aas said some unkind words against Affan the father of Uthman. Marwan took objection to these insulting remarks, but Uthman chose to remain quiet. Once when Uthman was addressing the congregation in the mosque and justifying his position, Amr b Al 'Aas contradicted him, and adopted an insulting stance. 'Amr b Al ,Aas had a strong party in Egypt and this party created a good deal of trouble for Uthman. When the rioters from Egypt came to Madina they enjoyed the support of 'Amr b Al 'Aas . When the agitation against Uthman grew in momentum, 'Amr b Al 'Aas left Madina for Palestine. While departing from Madina, 'Arur b Al 'Aas spoke contemptuously about Uthman, and said that he would raise even the shepherds of the desert against Uthman.

Abdullah bin Sa'ad

Early Life

Abdullah b Sa'ad was a foster brother of Uthman. Uthman had drunk milk of the mother of Abdullah b Sa'ad. Under the influence of Uthman, Abdullah b Sa'ad accepted Islam before the conquest of Makkah. He came to Madina, and the Holy Prophet employed him for recording the revelations. He tampered with some of the revelations, and when taken to task he apostatized and returned to Makkah. When the Holy Prophet conquered Makkah he granted general amnesty to the Quraish. An exception was made in the case of ten persons who were to be killed for their heinous crimes. Abdullah b Sa'ad was one of these ten persons who were to be killed. Abdullah b Sa'ad sought the protection of Uthman and appealed to him to intercede on his behalf with the Holy Prophet. The foster mother of Uthman appealed to him to save his foster brother. Uthman was reluctant to intercede because under Islam apostasy was a crime punishable with death. On account of the persistent entreaties of his foster mother for whom he had great respect Uthman agreed that he would do whatever he could. Uthman took Abdullah b Sa'ad to the Holy Prophet, and placed him at the mercy of the Holy Prophet. When the request for forgiveness was made the Holy Prophet made no reply. Uthman repeated the request for the second time and still the Holy Prophet remained silent. The request was made for the third time and out of regard for Uthman, the Holy Prophet agreed to spare the life of Abdullah b, Sa'ad. Abdullah repented and craved for forgiveness. He was forgiven and was readmitted to the fold of Islam.

After reconversion to Islam

After reconversion to Islam, Abdullah b Sa'ad proved to be a good Muslim. He allowed all the injunctions of Islam. He participated in the various battles, and gave a good account of himself. He was intelligent, and was particularly good in revenue collection. Umar was a good judge of men, and impressed by Abdullah's abilities, he appointed him as a Governor of Upper Egypt. As Governor Abdullah b Sa'ad did well and Umar was well pleased with him.

Criticism against Uthman

When Uthman appointed Abdullah b Sa'ad as the Governor of Egypt in succession to 'Amr b Al 'Aas he was accused of nepotism, and of doing grave injustice to 'Amr b Al 'Aas the Conqueror of Egypt. The charge of nepotism against Uthman is not correct, because Abdullah had been appointed as Governor by Umar. Uthman merely carried forward the policies that had been laid down by Umar. The charge of nepotism falls to the ground because Abdullah b Sa'ad alone was not related to him 'Amr b Al 'Aas was also related to him. If Abdullah b Sa'ad was the foster brother of Uthman, 'Amr b Al 'Aas was a brother-in-law of Uthman as he had married a sister of Uthman. Uthman had no intention to depose 'Amr b Al 'Aas . He wanted him to remain the Governor as well as the supreme military commander; he only wanted him to give independent charge of revenue department to Abdullah b Sa'ad. Abdullah b Sa'ad was an expert in revenue administration and financial management while 'Amr b Al 'Aas was Rood as a military commander. The division of functions proposed by Uthman was sound in principle and was in the best interests of the State. 'Amr b Al 'Aas did not accept the reform because he was interested more in matters of personal prestige than in measures devised in the interests of the State. If in the circumstances, 'Amr b Al 'Aas was deposed, the blame did not lie with Uthman. 'Amr b Al 'Aas was himself to be blamed for the crisis.

Achievements of Abdullah b Sa'ad

Abdullah b Sa'ad held the office of the Governor under Uthman for eleven years. Abdullah b Sa'ad made extensive conquests. He conquered the whole of North Africa. He even conquered a part of Spain. He undertook an expedition to Nubia. He built a strong navy and defeated the Byzantines in numerous naval battles. Under him the revenues increased substantially. Abdullah b Sa'ad was a good ruler, but in spite of that Egypt became a hot bed of sedition against the Government of Uthman. Muhammad b Hudhaifa, Muhammad b Abu Bakr poisoned the political atmosphere in Egypt by carrying a vilification campaign against Uthman. They were supported by Umar b Yasir, Ibn Saba, and the party of 'Amr b Al 'Aas . In 655 C.E. when Abdullah b Sa'ad went to Madina, power was captured in his absence by Muhammad b Hudhalfa, Abdullah returned to Egypt, but he was unable to recapture power. He retired to Ramlah were he died two years later.

Muhammad bin Abu Hudhaifa

Family of Muhammad b Abu Hudhaifa

Muhammad bin Abu Hudhaifa belonged to the Umayyad section of the Quraish. His father's original name was Utba bin Rabea'ah. Utba's daughter was Hind who was the wife of Abu Subian and the mother of Muawiyah. Muhammad was thus the maternal uncle of Muawiyah. Utba was one of the early converts to Islam. It is to be noted that while Abu Sufian led the Quraish in all wars against the Muslims till the Muslim conquest of Mecca, Abu Sufian's father-in-law accepted Islam at an early stage. One of the daughters of Abu Sufiyan was also converted to Islam at an early stage, and she was later married to the Holy Prophet. Abu Hudhaifa migrated with his wife Suhaila to Abyssinia In Abyssinia Uthman and Abu Hudhaifa worked in close unison. Muhammad the son of Abu Hudhaifa was born in Abyssinia. On return from Abyssinia Abu Hudhaifa migrated to Madina. In the battle of Badr, Abu Hudhaifa fought against his father who was an infidel Later he fought in all the battles under the command of the Holy Prophet. He participated in the apostasy wars during the caliphate of Abu Bakr. Abu Hudhaifa was martyred in the battle of Yamamma. Muhammad was then, a boy, fourteen or fifteen years old.

Uthman's guardianship of Muhammad

On the death of Abu Hudhaifa, Uthman assumed the guardianship of Muhammad b Hudhaifa. Muhammad b Abu Hudhaifa was brought up under the loving care of Uthman. Uthman treated him as a son. When Uthman became the Caliph, Muhammad bin Abu Hudhaifa desired that he should be made the Governor of some province. He wanted him to wait for some time as he was not yet fit for the high office of the Governor. That annoyed Muhammad b Abu Hudhaifa. He desired that in the circumstances he should be permitted to go somewhere else to seek his fortune. Uthman gave him some money and permitted him to go any where he liked. Muhammad b Abu Hudhaifa chose to go to Egypt.

Muhammad b Abu Hudhaifa in Egypt

In Egypt Abdullah b Sa'ad, a foster brother of Uthman was the Governor. Uthman had deposed 'Amr b Al 'Aas from the Governorship of Egypt, and appointed Abdullah as the Governor instead. In Egypt there was a strong party which favored 'Amr b Al 'Aas the original conqueror of Egypt. Muhammad b Abu Bakr who had some personal grievances against Uthman also came to Egypt. The two Muhammads joined hands in carrying on propaganda against Abdullah b Sa'ad and Uthman. I In Saba also came to Egypt, and he led a campaign for the subversion of Islam. Uthman sent an emissary 'Ammar b Yasir to Egypt to report about the state of affairs in Egypt. Those who were opposed to the administration carried on propaganda in favor of the caliphate of Ali. 'Ammar b Yasir had his affiliations with Ali and he too joined the opposition in Egypt. The opposition movement came to command a good following. Muhammad b Abu Bakr and Muhammad Abu Hudhaifa ingratiated themselves with the army. When Abdullah b Sa'ad won the battle of the Masts, the opposition tried to belittle the achievement by declaring that the real Jihad lay in protesting against Uthman who had deviated from the path of Islam. Propaganda against the Government was carried to the mosques. Abdullah b Sa'ad reported the matter to Uthman and wanted his permission to take action against Muhammad b Abu Bakr, Muhammad b Abu Hudhaifa and 'Ammar b Yasir. Uthman did not approve any action against 'Ammar b Yasir because he was an eminent companion. No action was to be taken against Muhammad bin Abu Bakr, because of the respect for Abu Bakr. No action was to be taken against Muhammad b Abu Hudhaifa for he was his adopted son. Want of action on the part of Government emboldened the opposition and the situation in Egypt worsened day by day.

Coup d'etat of Muhammad b Abu Hudhaifat

In 655 C.E. when the agitation against the Government grew in momentum Abdullah b Sa'ad went to Madina to apprise the Caliph of the state of affairs in Egypt. In the absence of Abdullah b Sa'ad from Egypt Muhammad b Abu Hudhaifa staged a coup d'etat, and captured power. On coming to know of th6 coup Abdullah b Sa'ad returned to Egypt but he failed to, recapture power. He retired to Ramlah where he died two years later. On coming to power in Egypt Muhammad b Hudhaifa sent Muhammad b Abu Bakr and 'Ammar b Yasir to Madina to prepare the ground in Madina for revolt against Uthman. Thereafter he sent a strong contingent from Egypt with the instructions to overthrow the Government of Uthman, and kill him if he refused to abdicate.

After the assassination of Uthman, Ali became the Caliph, and he appointed Muhammad b Abu Bakr as the Governor of Egypt. Muhammad b Hudhaifa resented his deposition. 'Amr b Al 'Aas who was originally opposed to Uthman turned a somersault and joined Muawiyah against Ali. Muhammad b Abu Hudhaifa also joined 'Amr b Al 'Aas . 'Amr b Al 'Aas captured Egypt, and Muhammad b Abu Bakr was killed.

In Islamic history, Muhammad b Abu Hudhaifa stands for an ungrateful person who worked for the murder of the man who was more than a father to him.

Amir Muwiyah

Early Life

Amir Muawiyah was the son of Abu Sufian. He was the leader of the Quraish He led the Quraish in the battle of Uhud. He was the inveterate enemy of Islam and he tried his best to overpower the Muslims. All his efforts, however, failed, and after the conquest of Makkah he had no option but to accept Islam. Muawiyah's mother was Hindah. She led a contingent of women in the battle of Uhud. At the battle of Uhud, she chewed the liver of Hamza, and uncle of the Holy Prophet. One of the sisters of Muawiyah Umm Habibah was married to the Holy Prophet. After conversion to Islam, Abu Sufian and his sons worked faithfully in the cause of Islam. Muawiyah was attached to the Holy Prophet. The Holy Prophet had a high opinion about the capacities of Muawiyah.

Amir Muawiyah as Governor of Syria

During the caliphate of Umar, Amir Muawiyah was the ruler of Damascus. Yazid a brother of Muawiyah was the ruler of Jordan. When Yazid fled, Umar placed Jordan also under the charge of Muawiyah

During the caliphate of Uthman when Alqama Kinani the ruler of Palestine died, Palestine was also entrusted to the charge of Muawiyah. A little later when 'Amir b Sa'ad Ansari the ruler of Emessa resigned because of ill health, Uthman added Emessa as well to the charge of Amir Muawiyah Under Muawiyah, Syria thus came to be consolidated into a single Province.

Achievements of Muawiyah

Syria became an important and strategic province because of its proximity to the dominions of the Byzantines. Muawiyah proved to be a Governor of exceptional character. He ruled as Governor for twenty years, and thereafter ruled as Caliph for another twenty years. In the history of the world we do not come across an instance of a Governor who was as popular as Muawiyah.

Muawiyah conquered the islands of Cypress and Rhodes. The Byzantines invaded Spain with a large force. Amir Muawlyah defeated the Byzantines. The Byzantines evacuated the border forts in the Tarsus which were occupied by the Muslims. The Muslims under Amir Muawiyah raided the Byzantine territories every year and made extensive conquests.

Muawiyah proved to be the most popular Government. While in other provinces, the Governors had to be deposed every now and then, Arnir Muawiyah enjoyed a long spell of rule as Governor for twenty years. While other provinces became the hot beds of sedition and agitation during the caliphate of Uthman. Syria remained free from such agitation. The credit for this state of affairs belonged to Muawiyah

Uthman and Amir Muawiyah

Amir Muawiyah was the second cousin of Uthman, and he supported Uthman through thick and thin. When the agitation against Uthman mounted high, Muawiyah made three offers to Uthman. He requested Uthman to go with him to Damascus as the people there were very loyal. Uthman did not accept this offer as he did not want to leave the city of the Holy Prophet. In the alternative Muawiyah offered to send a force form Syria who could act as the guard of the Caliph. Uthman did not accept this offer as he was averse to civil war among the Muslims. In the last resort, Muawiyah made the offer that if Uthman was killed he should be authorized to raise the demand for the avenging of his blood. This alternative was accepted by Uthman. After the martyrdom of Uthman, Muawiyah raised the demand for the vengeance of the blood of Uthman. This culminated in the establishment of the Umayyad rule after the death of Ali.

Taha Hussain's Criticism

In his book Uthman, Taha Hussain has found fault with Uthman for enlarging the jurisdiction of Amir Muawiyah as Governor. Taha Hussain considers that if Muawiyah had not been made so strong, he would not have aspired to the caliphate later on. The criticism of Taha Hussain is misconceived. Muawiyah was a Governor of exceptional merit and if in recognition of such merit, Uthman enlarged the jurisdiction of Muawiyah there was nothing wrong therein, and he did what was in the best interests of the State.

In the accounts that have come down to us, it is observed that Ali criticized Uthman for allowing too much latitude to Muawiyah lt. is alleged that Muawiyah took action on his own account and declared that was the order of the Caliph. No specific instances in this behalf have been cited and we are not in a position to observe how far the criticism of Ali was justified. Prima facie this was a matter of personal equation between Uthman and Muawiyah, and if Uthman had confidence in Muawiyah such confidence cannot be made a ground for criticism.

Mugheera bin Shu'ba

Early Life

Mugheera b Shu'ba belonged to the tribe of Thaqueef of Taif. He became a convert to Islam after the battle of Taif in 628 C.E. On conversion to Islam he took part in all the battles. He was a brave fighter. He lost an eye in the battle of Yamamma. During the caliphate of Umar, Utba b Ghazwan was the Governor of Basm while Mugheera b Shu'ba was the Deputy Governor. Utab b Ghazwan died in 639 C.E., and Mugheera b Shu'ba became the Governor of Basra.

Deposition of Mugheera b Shu'ba

Mugheera b Shu'ba had a weakness for women. He would marry women, and would divorce them after some time to make room for some more beautiful face. In this way he married no less than eighty women, taking steps to ensure that at a time his wives were not more than four, the limit prescribed by the Shariah. In those days there was a beautiful woman Umm Jamil at Basra who belonged to the same tribe as that of Mugheera. Her husband had died and she had become notorious for her love affairs. Mugheera was attracted by her and she visited him often.

Some Muslims in Basra became critical of the conduct of Mugheera. Among them was Abu Bakra. Thaqueefi whose house was across the street facing the house of Mugheera. One day a strong wind blew, and the windows of the houses of Abu Bakra and Mugheera got opened through the force of the wind. Abu Bakra saw through his window that in his houses Mugheera was locked up in an uncompromising state with a woman. He suspected that the woman was Umm Jamil. He had some friends with him, and they also saw Mugheera involved with a woman.

Abu Bakr wrote to Umar accusing Mugheera of adultery. The report was endorsed by four witnesses who had seen Mugheera in an uncompromising state with a woman. Mugheera as well as the complainants were summoned to Madina. At the trial, Mugheera pleaded not guilty. His defense was that the woman in question was his wife and not Umm Jamil. Out of the four witnesses, one witness stated that he had not seen the face of the woman, and as such he did not know who was she. The other witnesses were cross-examined, and on such examination it was found that there are some weak points in their evidence. They were asked whether that woman had her face or her back towards them. They said that she had their back to them. They tried to make out that even from her back, she could be identified as Umm Jamil. They said that the scandal of Mugheera and Umm Jamil was very common in Basra, and that the lady was none other than Umm Jamil. Mugheera was given the benefit of doubt and acquitted. He was, however, deposed from the governorship of Basra, and Abu Musa Ash'ari was appointed as the Governor in his place.

Mugheera as Governor of Kufa

In 643 C.E. Umar appointed Mugheera b Shu'ba as the Governor of Kufa. When Uthman became the Caliph, Mugheera continued in his office for one year, and was thereafter deposed to make room for the appointment of Sa'ad b Abi Waqas according to the testament of Umar.

Sa'ad bin Abi Waqas

Distinguished by Prophet Muhammad

Sa'ad b Abi Waqas belonged to the section of the Quraish to which the mother of the Holy Prophet belonged. Sa'ad became a convert to Islam at the age of seventeen. He participated in all the expeditions undertaken by the Holy Prophet. He had the distinction for shooting the first arrow in the cause of Islam. He was the only person to whom the Holy Prophet said, "May my parents be your ransom". He was very close to the Holy Prophet. The Holy Prophet held him in high esteem. He was one of the ten distinguished Muslims, whom the Holy Prophet gave the tidings of paradise in their lifetime.

Victor of Qadisiyia

Sa'ad b Abi Waqas rose into prominence when Umar appointed him as the Commander of the Muslim forces at the battle of Qadisiyia. The battle was won by the Muslims and Sa'ad b Abi Waqas earned the title of "Victor of Qadisiyia." Thereafter the Muslims under Saad b Abi Waqas captured Al Madain the capital of the Persians in Iraq. Sa'ad b Abi Waqas made Al Madain his headquarter for some time. V9hen the city of Kufa was built Sa'ad b Abi Waqas was made the Governor of Kufa, and he shifted there. Sa'ad b Abi Waqas built a splendid palace for himself at Kufa modeled on the Tak-i-Khusro palace at Al Madain. When this was brought to the notice of Umar as Caliph, he administered a rebuke to Sa'ad for his indulgence in luxury. He deputed Muhammad b Musalama to make an inquiry on the spot and report about the way of living of the Governor. Muhammad had the palace built by Sa'ad b Abi Waqas demolished. He reported that Sa'ad b Abi Waqas indulged in a luxurious way of living. Umar deposed Sa'ad b Abi Waqas from the Governorship of Kufa in 640 C.E.

Umar's instructions about Sa'ad b Abi Waqas to his Successor

On his death bed Umar nominated Sa'ad b Abi Waqas as a member of the Committee who were to choose the next Caliph from among themselves. He also left instructions that in case Sa'ad b Abi Waqas was not chosen as the Caliph, he who was chosen as the Caliph should duly compensate Sa'ad b Abi Waqas for his services to Islam. He declared that in 640 C.E. he had deposed Sa'ad from the Governorship of Kufa merely by way of policy and not for any of his faults After the deposition of Sa'ad, Ammar b Yasir was appointed as the Governor of Kufa. He held the office for a short time, and was replaced by Mugheera b Shu'ba as the Governor of Kufa.

Appointment of Sa'ad b Abi Waqas as the Governor of Kuf

Umar left instructions for his successor that no change should be made in the Governors appointed by him for one year and that thereafter his successor was free to make whatever changes he deemed necessary in public interest.

When Uthman became the Caliph, Mugheera b Shu'ba was the Governor of Kufa. True to the instructions of Umar, Uthman allowed the (Governors appointed by Umar to continue in their office. After the expiry of one year, Uthman deposed Mugheera and appointed Sa'ad b Abi Waqas as the Governor of Kufa.

Sa'ad b Abi Waqas as the Governor of Kufa

Back in office, Sa'ad b Abi Waqas tried to win the hearts of the people by his generosity and liberal hospitality. Any one who begged of him anything got what he wanted. On Fridays he gave vast amounts in charity. He made arrangements for the feeding of the travelers and the wayfarers. He awarded special stipends to the orphans and the widows. Because of his liberal policies, the means at the disposal of Sa'ad b Abi Waqas did not satisfy his needs. He was accordingly compelled to obtain a loan from the Bait-ul-Mal. The Baitul-Mal was under the charge of Ibn Masud. Ibn Masud was known for his scrupulous honesty, and for his strictness in financial matters. He allowed the loan to Sa'ad b Abi Waqas on the condition that it was to be repaid within a stipulated period. It was further laid down that the amount should be returned within the specified period, and that no extension should be allowed under any circumstances.

Dispute between Sa'ad b Abi Waqas and Ibn Masud

Sa'ad b Abi Waqas was not able to repay the loan within the stipulated period, and lbn Masud insisted on immediate repayment. Sa'ad b Abi Waqas wanted an extension in the time for the repayment of the loan. Ibn Masud refused to allow any extension ~n the ground that in accordance with the terms of the grant of the loan no extension was admissible. The issue became the subject matter of a dispute between Ibn Masud and Sa'ad b Abi Waqas. Hot words were exchanged between the two highest functionaries in the province. In the dispute some persons sided with Ibn Masud while some persons favored Sa'ad b Abi Waqas. Such differences created a crisis, and the provincial administration came to be paralyzed.

Deposition of Sa'ad b Abi Waqas

When the matter was reported to Uthman. he expressed displeasure, and wanted Sa'ad b Abi Waqas and Ibn Masud to settle the matter among themselves amicably. Some well wishers tried to intervene, but no way could be found to resolve the crisis. Sa'ad b Abi Waqas pleaded his inability to repay the loan immediately, while Ibn Masud pleaded his inability to allow any extension. The crisis deepened, and ultimately Uthman had no option but to depose Sa'ad b Abi Waqas from the Governorship of Kufa. Some of the malcontents made this order a matter of criticism against Uthman. It was contended that as there were two parties to the dispute, penal action should have been taken against both the parties and not against one of them only. It was argued that Uthman had unduly favored Ibn Masud who was originally a slave of his step father Uqba b Abi Mo'eet. If the facts of the case are considered dispassionately, it would be seen that there was no dereliction on the part of Ibn Masud. He merely insisted on the repayment of the loan according to the terms governing the grant of the loan. Ibn Masud merely performed his duty as the custodian of the Bait-ul-Mal, and there could be no justification for penalizing him for performing his duty zealously.

Walid bin Uqba

Early Years

On the deposition of Sa'ad b Abi Waqas from the governorship of Kufa, Uthman appointed Walid b Uqba as the Governor of Kufa. Walid b Uqba was an uterine brother of Uthman. After the death of Affan the father of Uthman, his mother Urwa had married Uqba b Abi Mo'eet. Uqba b Abi Mo'eet was one of the inveterate enemies of Islam. Among the Quraish he was in the forefront in the persecution of the Muslims. He was taken captive by the Muslims in the battle of Badr and was executed.

Walid became a Muslim at the time of the conquest of Makkah. Thereafter he was commissioned by the Holy Prophet to collect taxes from the Banu Mustaliq tribe. When Walid reached the settlement of the Banu Mustaliq they came out in large numbers to meet him. He got the impression that the Banu Mustaliq meant some mischief. He returned to Madina and reported to the Holy Prophet that the Banu Mustaliq had apostatized and were not willing to pay the taxes.

Later it transpired that the impression of Walid was false. The Banu Mustaliq had not apostatized, on the other hand they had gathered in strength to greet him as an emissary of the Government of Madina. The Holy Prophet felt annoyed at the conduct of Walid. On this occasion a verse of the Holy Quran was revealed enjoining the Muslims that when any news was reported, they should verify it in the first instance.

Walid was, however, intelligent and a man of considerable ability. Later he made amends for his lapse in the matter of the collection of taxes from Banu Mustaliq, and his services were utilized for sundry purposes. Umar a great connoisseur of men employed him for the collection of taxes from the Banu Taghlib tribe in Jazira and he discharged his duties most conscientiously.

When Uthman became the Caliph, Walid came to Madina and remained by the side of Uthman. In his book on Uthman, Raza Misri relates that once when Walid came to Uthman he took his particular seat, but when Hakam b Al A'as the uncle of Uthman came Uthman vacated his own seat for his uncle. Thereupon Walid b Uqba composed the verses:

"I have seen what respect one's uncle commands;
And before the uncle the stature of the brother is diminished;
Perhaps the brother's fault is that he is young in age;
I hope that in course of time 'Amr and Khalid (sons of Uthman) would respect me as uncle as Uthman respects his uncle Hakam."

Walid as Governor of Kuf

When Walid went to Kufa to take over charge as Governor, Sa'ad b Abi Waqas said to him, "By God I do not know whether after us you have become wiser, or before you we have become more foolish". Walid said, "It is neither this nor that; it is only the vicissitudes of time that shifts the center of power from one person to another." Sa'ad said, "Whatever the case I fear that you would convert the caliphate to monarchy."

As Governor Walid became very popular. His rule was mild and just. His house had no door; every body had free access to him. He took pains to redress the grievances of the people. He sanctioned stipends for the poor, the widows and the orphans, and the people admired him for his generosity.

In the case of revolts in Armenia and Azarbaijan, Walid led his forces in person; suppressed the revolts; restored law and order: and amassed great booty.

Complaints against Walid b Uqba

Walid b Uqba remained the Governor of Kufa for a period of five years and during this period he was very popular among the people and there were no complaints against him.

Thereafter the events took a sudden turn, and the position of Walid as Governor became uneasy. One night some young men beat to death a citizen of Kufa, Ibn Hesiman Khuzaii by name. Three young men Zubair b Jandab Azdi; Mawan b Abi Lawah Asadi; and Shabilb Abi Al Azdi were accused of the murder. Abu Sharih Khuzaii and his son who were the neighbors of Ibn Hesiman watched the murder from their house.

When the case was reported to Walid he held a public trial. The details of the case are not known. We do not know what was the cause of the dispute between the murdered person and his murderers. The only eye witnesses of the tragedy were Abu Sharih Khuzaii and his son. They narrated that they heard Ibn Hesiman cry for help. Thereupon the murderers had said to him, "Do not cry for one stroke of the sword will suffice for you." As Abu Sharih and his son had watched the tragedy from some distance in the dark they were not in a position to fully recognize the murderers

In view of this shortcoming in the evidence, the heirs of the murdered were asked to declare on fifty oaths as required by the injunctions of the Shariah, that the persons accused of the murder were really the murderers of Ibn Hesiman. They took the prescribed fifty oaths, and Walid gave the verdict that the accused were guilty of murder. The death sentence was referred to Uthman for confirmation, and when the confirmation orders were received the three accused persons were hanged.

Thereupon 'Amr b 'Asim Tamimi composed the following verse:

"O mischief mongers do not murder your neighbors like this,
During the caliphate of Uthman;
Beware that the Caliph would penalize the miscreants According to the injunctions of Islam;
For verily Uthman always acts,
In accordance with the commands of the Holy Quran
Which regulates the conduct of the Muslims in all matters

While the general public felt satisfied at the execution of the murderers, the fathers of the three murderers namely Jandab Azdi, Abi Lawah Asadi, and Abi Al Azdi felt dissatisfied. Their grouse was that the charge of murder had not been established against their sons and that Walid had executed them as he had some personal grudge against them. They carried on propaganda against the Governor, and they were able to win some persons to their cause. The party worked underground, and their secret agents spied on Walid with a view to ascertain his weaknesses and defame him

As a result of the working of this party, Walid came to be accused of some imaginary grievances. When Walid was the Collector in Jazira he had come across Abu Zubayd Taii a poet of great eminence. As Walid was also a poet, he freely associated with Abu Zubayd. Abu Zubayd was a Christian and he was given to drinking. While in Jazira there was no complaint that Walid had associated with Abu Zubayd in any drinking but Abu Zubayd had to pay some loan and he was not in a position to clear his debt. Walid came to the help of Abu Zubayd by repaying the loan out of his own pocket. That made Abu Zubayd indebted to Walid. When Walid became the Governor of Kufa, Abu Zubayd came to Kufa and stayed with Walid as his guest. At the instance of Walid, Abu Zubayd became a Muslim. He wrote some verses in the praise of Islam. During the nights Walid and Abu Zubayd spent long hours together talking on literary matters. The conspirators whipped up a campaign that during the nights Abu Zubayd and Walid indulged in drinking. Some persons secretly raided the house of Walid to catch hold of some liquor but they found nothing objectionable.

A sorcerer appeared in Kufa who claimed that he could enter through the body of an ass from its tail and come out from its mouth. Walid asked the sorcerer to give a public demonstration of his feat. The conspirators whipped up a vilification campaign against Walid. They were critical that the Governor was patronizing sorcery. On the occasion of the public demonstration the conspirators appeared in large number, and raised the cry that the demonstration was unlslamic. They rushed at the sorcerer and killed him, thereupon Walid apprehended the murderers of the sorcerer and put them in jail. The case was reported to Uthman. He directed that the murderers be released, and warned not to take the law in their hands. On release the conspirators intensified their campaign of vilification against Walid. They changed their tactics. They began to associate with Walid, and pretended that they were sorry for the past misunderstandings and that in future they would be faithful and loyal to him. Walid took them at their word. These persons amused Walid with their anecdotes and stories One night these persons kept awake till late hours telling him some interesting stories. When overpowered by sleep Walid dozed, they took of the official ring from his finger and departed for Madina.

In Madina they complained before Uthman that Walid was guilty of intoxication. In evidence of the charge that in a fit of intoxication Walid had thrown away his official ring. They also charged that Walid led the prayers in a state of intoxication, and in the state of such unconsciousness he offered four rakaats in the morning prayers instead of the Prescribed two rakaats

Trial of Walid b Uqba

Walid b Uqba was summoned to Madina and put to trial The charge against him was that he had drunk and that he had led the morning prayers in a state of intoxication. The prosecutors were asked whether they had seen Walid drink. They said that they had not seen him drinking but he had vomited in their presence, and they had seen drops of wine sticking to his beard. They added that on a particular day Walid in a state of unconsciousness led the morning prayer in four rakaats and then asked the congregation, "Are you satisfied, or should we offer some rakaats. "Walid dented the charge No direct evidence had established the charge. In the absence of evidence the matter had to be decided by oath taking. The prosecutors took the solemn oath that Walid had drunk, and that he had led the prayers in a state of intoxication. The accounts that have come down to us provide that thereafter Uthman sentenced Walid b Uqba to the penalty of flogging. There is considerable discrepancy on the accounts that have come down to us. According to one account it is related that Walid objected that the charge against him had not been established as the witnesses were interested and prejudiced. It is stated that Uthman counseled Walid to bear the hardship with patience. According to one account Ali asked his son Hasan to flog Walid. Hasan refused to do so. Accordingly to one account it was Abdullah b Jafar b Abu Talib who flogged Walid. According to another version Saeed b 'Aas flogged Walid.

It is also related that the poet Hatiya composed some verses in the defense of Walid. He said:

"When Hatiya is presented in the court of Allah
He will give evidence that Walid is innocent.
Only jealous persons have complained against Walid And made false accusations.
In fact, Walid was not fond of office, nor did he depend on it.'

A poet of the rival camp said:

"What to say of Walid,
He would lead the prayers in a state of intoxication,
And lengthen the prayers.
If he continues in office
He would lengthen the morning prayer to ten rakaats."

Objective assessment

When the entire episode of the deposition and penalization of Walid b Uqba is studied objectively one is apt to conclude that the accounts that have come down to us are distorted, and remote from reality. The tale appears to have been embroidered both by those who were critical of Uthman, and those who wanted to defend. Those who were hostile to Uthman took pains to establish that the person appointed by Uthman to high offices was guilty of heinous crimes, and hence Uthman was guilty of appointing undeserving person to high offices.

On the other hand those who stood for the defense of Uthman, and wanted to show that Uthman was just and impartial, held that even when a brother of Uthman was found guilty, Uthman did not hesitate to subject him to the penalty of law.

As a matter of fact, the accounts that have come down to us with regard to this episode do not stand the test of historical scrutiny. The case against Walid was not established, and according to the norms of justice he could not be penalized on the ground of mere hearsay or the evidence of interested witnesses. During his five years rule Walid had been most popular. Only a few persons conspired against him, and it is inconceivable that such high functionary of the State should have been publicly disgraced merely because of a conspiracy against him when the charge was not established.

Walid had the support of the Bani Umayya, and they were in sufficient strength and power. They could not submit to the public disgrace of one of their leaders. It is well known that Uthman had a great regard for his relatives. He could not have condemned his brother to such disgrace when the charge itself was not established.

The truth of the matter is that the charge against Walid was not established. As such no penalty was imposed and there was no flogging. Uthman merely deposed Walid b Uqba for administrative reasons.

Saeed bin Al'Aas'

Early Years

On the deposition of Walid b Uqba, Saeed b Al'Aas was appointed the Governor General of Kufa in 651 C.E. He belonged to the Umayyad section of the Quraish. His father was 'Aas b Umayya b Abd Shams. His mother was Umm Kulsum bint 'Amr b Abdullah b Abi Qais. His father was killed by Ali at the battle of Badr. Saeed was then only two years old. Uthman took care of the child. Saeed was intelligent and well read. When he grew up he accepted Islam, and went to Muawiyah in Syria. Umar recalled him to Madina, and entrusted him some important duties. When Uthman constituted a board for the recension of the Holy Quran, Saeed was one of the members. Saeed was a young man of great qualities. He never turned down a beggar. When a beggar called on him and he had perchance nothing to pay, he would give the beggar a chit on the basis whereof he could recover the amount specified in the chit, from him later. He invited friends to a feast every Friday, and gave them expensive presents and gifts. He was eloquent, and was known for his scholarship.

Saeed's first address at Kufa

On taking charge as the Governor General of Kufa, Saeed addressed the congregation in the mosque. He said:

"I swear by God that I have not come to you of my free will. 1 had no desire for the office and I did not ask for it. I was ordered to accept this office and I had no option but to comply. The office of the governorship is a great challenge, and I have accepted it in the interests of the State. I see that disorder is aboard in Kufa. It will be my foremost duty to establish law and order, and crush all attempts at disorder. In this task I will value your cooperation, but I will discharge my obligations even if such cooperation is not forthcoming. O men of Kufa beware that if you take to the path of righteousness you will find me your best supporter, but if you choose to follow the path of mischief, I will have no option but to subject you to the penalty of law. I therefore warn you in your own interests that you should abandon your ways of the past, and tread the path that behooves a good citizen. I appeal to you in the name of Islam not to disturb the peace of the land. If you have any legitimate grievances, apprise me of such grievances and I assure you that I will leave no stone unturned in redressing such grievances. "

Saeed's survey of the situation in Kufa

Saeed surveyed the situation in Kufa. His finding was that agitation and mischief were aboard in Kufa. The peace loving and law abiding citizens were sitting shut up in their houses, while the society in Kufa had come to be dominated by agitators and mischief mongers. He apprised Uthman of the situation. Uthman advised him to patronize the law abiding citizens, and neutralize the activities of the mischief makers of a diplomatic handling of the situation. In accordance with the advice of Uthman, the first line of action of Saeed was to placate those from whom any mischief could be expected. Saeed invited such persons and admitted them to his society. Saeed would hold meetings with such people almost every night and consulted them on the affairs of the State. Saeed's strategy was to give such persons a sense of participation in the affairs of the State thereby neutralizing their power of mischief making. On the other hand the plan of such persons was to subvert the administration from within.

Disturbances in Kufa

In spite of Saeed's efforts to maintain peace and win over the mischief makers to the cause of law and order, things soon came to head culminating in disturbances. One night when Saeed held his usual meeting with these persons, a reference was made to the liberality and generosity of Talha bin Ubaidullah. It was said that Talha was very liberal in cir,~rity, and he distributed thousands of dirhams among the poor every week. Saeed said that Talha b Ubaidullah owned a very large estate "Nashsta;", which brought him very large income and as such he could indulge in manifestations of charity. Saeed added that if he were an estate holder, his generosity would surpass the generosity of Talha. Thereupon one of the persons in the gathering, Khanis b Falan Asadi said, "I wish you owned the royal Persian estate in Iraq '`Maltat", so that you could give us the manifestation of your generosity. There was some further talk on the subject, and thereafter the tempers flared up. These people felt that Khanis was inciting Saeed to acquire the estate of Maltat. Their view was that this estate should be distributed among the people. That led to an altercation, and Khanis was given a good beating.

On another occasion Saeed in an unwary moment said that Sawad (the area between the Tigris and the Euphrates) was the garden of the Quraish. These people protested in strong terms. They said that this area in Iraq belonged to Iraq anu the (2uraisll had no right to dominate over the people of lraq in that way. That led to a rift between Saeed and the people whom he usually invited to his night sittings.

These people included Ashtar; Ibr. Zi Alhabka; Jandab; Sasama; lbn al Kawa, Kameel; and Aamar b Zaabi,

Saeed discontinued his nightly meetings. Now these persons held their own meetings, and at such meetings they carried on poisonous propaganda against Saeed and Uthman. Some poets wrote verses vilifying Saeed. One of the poets said:

"Escaping from Walid I took Shelter with Saeed. But it was like a person who took shelter in a cave and was killed. Tlle Quraish put us every year to a trouble. Every now anu then a new Amir is imposed on us. A burr ng fire is before us from which we apprehend danger. There is no fire before the Ouraish. As such there is nothing to withhold the Quraish from their tyrannies. May God save us from them."

It appears that in order to carry out their subversive designs the conspirators raised the bogey of the tyranny of the Quraish. This poisonous, propaganda slowly spread among the people of Kufa, and the people began to harbor imaginary grievances against the Quraish. Saeed and Uthman became the target of criticism.

Saeed reported this unsatisfactory state of affairs to Otlunan. Uthman directed that the ring-leaders of the conspirators be sent to Syria.

Deposition of Saeed b Al'Aas

In Syria, Amir Muawiyah tried to deal with these conspirators diplomatically. He provided them with various facilities, and conferred many favors on them. He held several sittings with them, and tried to make them see reasons. The conspirators continued their campaign of vilification against the Quraish, and even demanded the deposition of Amir Muawiyah. Amir Muawiyah reported the matter to Uthman and he directed that these men be sent to Jazira where the ruler was Abdur Rahman.

Abdur Rahman was the son of the famous General Khalid b Walid. He treated with these conspirators harshly. The strong measures adopted by Abdur Rahman had a salutary effect, and the conspirators offered repentance. Abdur Rahman sent one of these conspirators Ashtar to Madina, and sent a message to Uthman through him that as they had repented they might be allowed to return to Kufa.

In Madina, Ashtar saw Uthman, and offered repentance on his own behalf, and on behalf of the other conspirators. At that time Saeed b Al 'Aas was also in Madina. Uthman accepted the repentance of Ashtar and the other conspirators, and allowed them to return to Kufa.

Ashtar and the other conspirators returned to Kufa, while Saeed was still in Madina. Back in Kufa, the conspirators violated their pledge, and once again resorted to a campaign of vilification. This time Saeed b Al'Aas was the main target of criticism. Addressing the people at the gate of the main mosque in Kufa, Ashtar said that he had been to Madina, where he had come to know that Saeed b Al 'Aas had recommended to Uthman that strong measures should be taken against the people of Kufa. They were to be enslaved and deported and their properties were to be confiscated.

The deputy that Saeed b Al 'Aas had left at Kufa tried to explain to the people that all this talk of enslavement and confiscation of properties was false, and there was no such move in any quarter. The people paid no heed to him and raised slogans demanding the deposition of Saeed b Al 'Aas . The persons who were pro-Government had to remain confined to their houses, while the streets of Kufa came to be flocked by agitators vociferous in their demand for the deposition of Saeed b Al'Aas .

Over one thousand persons from Kufa decided to go to Madina to place their demand before Uthman. Uthman listened to them at Madina. He tried to explain to them that all their grievances were imaginary, and Saeed b Al 'Aas had made no recommendation to which they were objecting. They, however, stuck test to their demand for the deposition of Saeed b Al 'Aas . Uthman felt that argument with the rebels was of no avail. In order to pacify them he said, "If you do not want Saeed as your Governor, whom do you want?" They said, "Abu Musa Ashari may be appointed as our Governor." Uthman said, "All right, I accept your demand in the interests of peace although I know that no blame rests on Saeed b Al 'Aas . I depose him and appoint Abu Musa Ashari as your Governor. Now go back and be at peace. Now that I have given you the Governor of your own choice, obey him, and let there be no more of unnecessary agitation".

This action of Uthman has been made the subject of criticism in some quarters. There is one school of thought which is critical of Uthman for making a wrong choice in the appointment of Governors. As a matter of fact there was nothing wrong with the appointment of Saeed b Al 'Aas . He was a talented young man whose talents had been acknowledged by Umar. Saeed won brilliant victories in Tabaristan, and that was a feather in his cap.

The other school of thought criticizes Uthman for deposing Saeed when he was not at fault. Although Saeed was not at fault there was nevertheless strong agitation against him, right or wrong. In such circumstances if Saeed was to continue in office, it meant the imposition of a Governor on the people whom they did not want. In the circumstances, in the interests of public administration, the only course open to Uthman was to recall Saeed from Kufa and appoint in his stead the man they wanted. Uthman hoped that by such action he would take the wind out of the sails of the rebels.

Abu Musa Ash'ari

Abu Musa Ash'ari during the Caliphate of Umar

Abu Musa Ashiari was the Governor of basra during the caliphate of Umar. During this period, some complaints were made against him to Umar. The main complaints against him were:

that out of the captives he had kept sixty persons for himself;
that he had paid one thousand diners to a poet;
that he had a maid Aquila who was paid a stipend which was twice the stipend paid to other Muslims;
that he had entrusted most of his work to a young man Ziyad.

Umar held a regular Inquiry into these charges. Abu Musa Ash'ari offered his defense as follows:

He had to kept these slaves for himself; they were under his charge till they were ransomed. The amount of the ransom was duly credited to the Baitul Mall
He had paid the poet out of his own money and not out of the Baitul Mall
There was something exceptional and extraordinary with the physical make up of the maid for she consumed twice as much as a common person. Under the circumstances it was necessary to assign her two shares.
The young man Ziyad was very intelligent, and as Governor he was justified in making use of his intelligence in public interest.

Umar after a detailed inquiry exonerated Abu Musa Ash'ari of all the charges leveled against him, and allowed him to continue in his office.

Another complaint

On another occasion a person complained that Abu Musa Ash'ari had given him a lesser share than what he was entitled to. When the man saw Abu Musa he behaved rudely. Abu Musa felt annoyed, and had him struck with twenty lashes. He also had his hair shaved. The man complained to Umar, and Umar asked him to lay his complaint before a congregation in the mosque at Basra.. When the man laid his complaint before the congregation in the main mosque at Basra, Abu Musa admitted his mistake and said to the man "You can have your revenge. You may strike me with twenty lashes and have my hair shaved." The man felt satisfied and withdrew his complaint.

Deposition of Abu Musa Ash'ari

When Uthman became the Caliph, he let Abu Musa Ash'ari continue as the Governor of Basra. He continued to hold this office for three years during the caliphate of Uthman. During the year 647 C.E. there were some disturbances in Fars, and some forces had to be sent there to restore law and order. There was shortage of animals at the time, and addressing the people Abu Musa stressed the virtue of undertaking Jihad on foot. The people were impressed with the preaching of Abu Musa Ash'ari, and they volunteered to undertake Jihad on foot in case there was a shortage of animals.

When on the scheduled date, Abu Musa Ashari came out of his palace to lead the people to battle, he rode on a richly caprisoned horse, and his camp equipage was loaded on forty pack animals. The people flared up at this display of luxury on the part of Abu Musa Ash'ari, and the dichotomy in what he preached and what he practiced. Some of the persons held the reins of the horse of Abu Musa Ash'ari and said: "Alight and walk with us on foot, or furnish us horses as well to ride." That annoyed Abu Musa Ash'ari. Harsh words were exchanged between Abu Musa As~h'ari and some of the persons, and he had some persons lashed for their insolence. The reaction of the people to this act on the part of the Governor was violent. They refused to march to the battlefield under his leadership, who did not practice what he preached.

A deputation representing the people of Basra left for Madina, and there they lodged a complaint before Uthman against the conduct of Abu Musa Ash'ari. The news writer from Basra also sent a report which was not favorable to the Governor. Abu Musa had held the office of the Governor for over six years, and because of the length of the term of office he had come to develop a sort of superiority complex which created a gulf between the people and the Governor. Abu Musa Ashari had grown in years, and was prone to prefer a life of ease. Uthman gave a patient hearing to the deputationists. They pressed the need of deposing Abu Musa Ashari from his office. Uthman after hearing all the complaints against Abu Musa Ash'ari came to the conclusion that he was not guilty of any dishonesty or dereliction of duty. He, however, felt that Abu Musa had held the office for long, and it was in public interest that there should be a change. He asked the deputationists: "In case Abu Musa is removed, whom would you like to be Governor?" They said that any young man in whom the Caliph had confidence would be better than the old Abu Musa Ash'ari. Uthman thereupon passed orders deposing Abu Musa Ashiari form the governorship of Basra, and appointing Abdullah b Aamar in his place.

Abu Musa Ash'ari as the Governor of Kufa

In 655 C.E. when Saeed b Al 'Aas was deposed from the governorship of Kufa, the people of Kufa demanded the appointment of Abu Musa Ash'ari as their Governor. Uthman accepted the demand and appointed Abu Musa Ashari as the Governor of Kufa. In his address on the occasion of the assumption of office Abu Musa secured an undertaking from the people of Kufa that they would not indulge in agitation, and would be loyal to Uthman. The people of Kufa, however, did not fulfil their undertaking and they sent a contingent to Madina to besiege the house of Uthman and press for his abdication. Although Abu Musa Ash'ari did nothing to oppose Uthman, he did nothing to help him either. He preferred to be neutral and watch developments.

Abdullah bin 'Aamir

Appointment as the Governor of Basra

When Abu Musa Ash'ari was deposed from the governorship of Basra, Uthman appointed Abdullah b 'Aamir as the Governor of Basra. The people of Basra wanted that a young man should be appointed as the Governor and in deference to this wish of the people, Abdullah b 'Aamar a young man of twenty- five was appointed to the of fice. 'Aamir the father of Abdullah was a maternal uncle of Uthman. Abdullah was thus a cousin of Uthman.

Conquests of Ibn 'Aamir

Abdullah b 'Aamir in spite of his young age was a man of exceptional merits. He was a man of sterling qualities. He was a good administrator and a skilful general. Soon after assuming charge as Governor, Abdullah b 'Aamir embarked on a campaign of extensive conquests. He first undertook campaigns in the province of Fars. After suppressing revolts in Fars, Abdullah b 'Aamir undertook campaigns in Kirman. The command of the forces in Kirman was entrusted to Mujasshaa b Musa Salmi. Kirman was soon reconquered. Campaigns were next undertaken in Seestan. Rabeah b Ziyad Harithi was appointed to command the forces in Seestan. Seestan was reconquered. Thereafter Afghanistan was conquered, and the borders of India were reached. Theteafter Abdullah b 'Aamir led the Muslim forces in person in Khurasan the Muslim forces captured the forts which were the gates of Khurasan. Thereafter Abdullah b 'Aamir led the Muslim forces to Quhistan. Ouhistan was conquered after some fighting. Ibn 'Aamir sent numerous columns in various dlrections. One column conquered the territory of Rustaqzam in Nishapur. Another column conquered the area of Bakharz. Another column conquered the area of luban. Another column under Aswad b Kulthum Adwi was sent against Bahaq. Aswad was killed in action, but the city was conquered by the Muslims. Thereafter other cities in Nishapur were brought under control. Thereafter the city of Abushahr was reduced after a long siege. Thereafter Nishapur was conquered. It n 'Aarnir appointed Qais b Hatim Salmi as the ruler of Nishapur. Ibn 'Aamir sent another column under Abdullah b Khazam Salmi to Nasaa The city was conquered and the peace was negotiated on the usual terms. The next campaign was against Sarakhs which fell to the Muslims after some fighting. From Sarakhs one column advanced to Kaif and another to Bina. Both the cities were conquered after some fighting. Tus was next to fall. Columns were thereafter sent to Herat, Badghes, and Bushang which cities also fell to the Muslims. The cities of Taghun and Yaghun fell after some fighting. Thereafter the Muslim forces advanced to Merv. The ruler of Merv surrendered and agreed to pay tribute. Another column advanced to Taghiristan which country was conquered after some fighting. Next the territory of Mervroz was captured. A column under Aqraa b Habis Tamimi was sent to Juzjan. The territory of Juzjan was conquered by the Muslims after a good deal of fighting. The territories of Talqan and Faryab were next conquered. The Muslims thereafter advanced to Balkh which city was captured after a siege lasting for some time.

Thereafter Abdullah b 'Aamir crossed the Oxus, and subdued a greater part of Transoxiana. After these conquests Abdullah b 'Aamir returned to Nishapur. The achievements of Abdullah b 'Aamir were most astounding. Within a few years he had conquered Fars, Kirman, Seestan, Kabul, Khurasan and a greater part of Transoxiana. The conquests exceeded the conquests made by any other conqueror in history.

After the successful completion of his campaigns, Abdullah b Aamir donned the 17'ram in Nishapur, and proceeded to the Ka'aba to perform the Hajj and offer thanks to God. After performing the Hajj, Abdullah b 'Aamir proceeded to Madina to see Uthman. Before Abdullah b 'Aamir reached Madina, Uthman had been martyred. That was a great shock for Abdullah b 'Aamir. When Zubair, Talha, and Ayesha raised the call for the vengeance for the blood of Uthman, Abdullah b 'Aamir joined them. The confederates succeeded in capturing Basra because of the influence that Abdullah b 'Aamir commanded with the people of Basra. In the "Battle of the Camel" which was fought in December 656, the confederates were defeated and Basra was captured by Ali.

Assessment of Abdullah b 'Aamir

In most of the accounts that have come down to us, Uthman is accused of nepotism, and appointing his cousin Abdullah b 'Aamir, a young man of twenty-five years as the Governor of Basra. The critics forget that Abdullah b 'Aamir proved to be the most successful Governor of history. No other Governor in the history of the world ever made conquests on as large a scale as Abdullah b 'Aamir. It is unfortunate that full details of the exploits of Abdullah b 'Aamir have not been presented in history. Only fragmentary accounts of his victories are given in history books, and it appears that the achievements of Abdullah b 'Aamir and Uthman in the matter of these extensive victories have been suppressed under some intellectual conspiracy. What is regrettable is that while Uthman and his relatives who served under him are blamed for their favoritism, and tribal predilections, their unique achievements have been belittled and passed over. As a matter of fact, Abdullah b 'Aamir deserves to be honored as one of the top ranking Generals of Islam.

Marwan bin Hakam

The evil genius

In most of the accounts that have come down to us, Marwan b Hakam is painted as the "evil genius" who was responsible for the troubles of Uthman. The issue needs objective examination. Marwan was the son of Hakam. Hakam was the paternal uncle of Uthman. When Uthman was converted to Islam, Hakam put considerable pressure on Uthman to retract from his faith in Islam. Uthman remained firm in his faith in Islam, and thereafter Hakam left Uthman to himself. Hakam and his son Marwan were converted to Islam at the time of the conquest of Makkah. Hakam and Marwan then came to Madina. In Madina, the Holy Prophet felt annoyed at the conduct of Hakam and exiled him to Taif. Marwan consequently came to be called "Ibn Tarid", the son of the expelled one. It is reported that Uthman interceded with the Holy Prophet for the recall of Hakam from exile. The Holy Prophet agreed to rescind the orders of exile, but before the orders were passed the Holy Prophet was dead. In the time of Abu Bakr and Umar, Uthman requested for the recall of Hakam. As no evidence other than the evidence of Uthman was available to the effect that the Holy Prophet had agreed to rescind the orders of exile, the Caliphs did not agree to recall Hakam from exile. When Uthman became the Caliph he recalled Hakam from exile. As Caliph, Uthman was competent to act on the basis of information available to him. In some quarters, Uthman was criticized for rescinding the order passed by the Holy Prophet. Uthman dec1ared that the Holy Prophet had agreed to his recall. Uthman was not the man to speak a lie and whatever he said must be true. The orders of exile were recalled after more than twelve years and as every sentence must be for a specified period, Uthman was justified in passing the orders of recall after twelve years. Hakam did not stay in Madina for long, and went back to Makkah and Taif. Uthman requested Hakam to leave Marwan at Madina in order to assist him. Marwan accordingly remained at Madina and he acted as Uthman's Minister and Secretary. It cannot be denied that as Caliph Uthman needed assistance in running the affairs of the State. He could appoint only such persons to such office who enjoyed his absolute confidence.

It may be recalled that in the time of Uthman, there were no developed institutions for running the affairs of the State. Loyalties depended on blood relationship and tribal considerations alone. In the circumstances of the age in which he lived Uthman had no option, but to invoke the assistance of his relatives. It is alleged that Uthman allotted one fifth of the revenues of Egypt to Marwan. The allegation is preposterous. If there had been any substance in the allegation Marwan should have been extraordinarily rich. As a matter of fact he was a man of ordinary means, and this shows that no undue payments were made to him. It is probable that some allowances may have been paid to Marwan out of the public funds, but such payment was justified because Marwan served as Minister or Secretary to the Caliph. Marwan is generally painted as the evil genius of Uthman. Sir William Muir has explained in his book regarding the history of the Caliphs that such allegations are based on partisan motives and are void of substance. It is made out that on several occasions Ali gave his mind to Uthman and Uthman promised to follow the advice of Ali, but that on the advice of Marwan, Uthman would again revert to his objectionable ways. All such allegations were made with a view to projecting Uthman as a man of fickle and feeble character who had no will of his own, and was led by the nose by unscrupulous advisers. As a matter � of fact, Uthman was neither feeble nor fickle, nor were his advisers unscrupulous. They were as good Muslims as other persons, and they served the State as best as they could.

Marwan's role in the martyrdom of Uthman

In most of the accounts that have come down to us, an impression is created that Uthman was killed because he unduly shielded Marwan. It is related that the delegation which came from Egypt merely complained against Abdullah b Sa'ad the Governor of Egypt. Uthman wrote a strong letter to Abdullah b Sa 'ad to redress the grievances of the people. It is alleged that Abdullah b Sa'ad instead of redressing the grievances of the people scourged the persons who had complained against him, and had one of them executed. Thereupon the Egyptians came to Madina for the second time. They saw some of the Companions, and explained their grievances to them. It is reported that Talha b Ubaidullah saw Uthman and spoke some harsh words to him about the laxity of his administration. Ayesha is also reported to have criticized Uthman. Ali is reported to have advised Uthman to depose Abdullah b Sa'ad from the Governorship of Egypt. Uthman agreed to the demand, and wanted the Egyptians to name the person whom they wanted to be appointed as the Governor of Egypt. They suggested Muhammad b Abu Bakr, and Uthman passed orders deposing Abdullah b Sa'ad and appointing Muhammad b Abu Bakr in his place. The Egyptians felt satisfied at this order and they returned to Egypt. After they had proceeded a few stages from Madina they came across a slave of Uthman. On search he was found carrying a letter to Abdullah b Sa'ad not to give effect to the orders of deposition passed against him. He was instructed to put the rioters to death. That made the Egyptians return to Madina. They saw Ali and Ali took them to Uthman. Uthman took a solemn oath denying all knowledge about the letter. It was suspected that the letter was in the hand of Marwan. The Egyptians wanted that Marwan should be handed over to them. Uthman refused, and thereupon the rioters besieged Uthman in his house. The siege lasted for some days and ultimately Uthman was martyred. It is alleged that when Ali heard of the murder of Uthman he said that he wanted the murder of Marwan and not that of Uthman. This account tends to give the impression that Uthman lost his life because he showed undue favor to Marwan

Research has established that the story about the alleged letter is a concocted story, and is remote from reality. It appears from Tabari that when the rioters came to Madina, Abdullah be Sa'ad was ousted from power by a revolt led by Muhammad b Abi Hudhaifa. Muhammad b Abi Hudhaifa was opposed to Uthman, and as such there was no occasion to require that the rioters should be murdered.

Even if the story of the letter were true, Marwan who was the Minister could not be handed over to the rioters merely because they suspected that he had written the letter. Marwan could not be condemned unless a regular trial was held and he was found guilty. If the rioters had demanded the trial of Marwan, Othrnan would have agreed to such a trial, but he could not hand over a high functionary of the State to the fury of the rioters without trial.